THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS 



Carpentry for Boys 

A book which treats, in a most practical and fascinating manner 
all subjects pertaining to the " King of Trades "; showing the care 
and use of tools; drawing; designing, and the laying out of work; 
the principles involved in the building of various kinds of struc- 
tures, and the rudiments of architecture. It contains over two 
hundred and fifty illustrations made especially for this work, and 
includes also a complete glossary of the technical terms used in the 
art. The most comprehensive volume on this subject ever pub- 
lished for boys. 



Electricity for Boys 

The author has adopted the unique plan of setting forth the funda- 
mental principles in each phase of the science, and practically 
applying the work in the successive stages. It shows how the 
knowledge has been developed, and the reasons for the various 
phenomena, without using technical words so as to bring it within 
the compass of every boy. It has a complete glossary of terms, and 
is illustrated with two hundred original drawings. 



Practical Mechanics for Boys 

This book takes the beginner through a comprehensive series of 
practical shop work, in which the uses of tools, and the structure 
and handling of shop machinery are set forth; how they are utilized 
to perform the work, and the manner in which all dimensional work 
is carried out. Every subject is illustrated, and model building 
explained. It contains a glossary which comprises a new system of 
cross references, a feature that will prove a welcome departure in 
explaining subjects. Fully illustrated. 



Price 60 cents per volume 
THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY 

147 Fourth Avenue New York 



The "How-to-do-it" Books 



CARPENTRY FOR BOYS 



THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS 



CARPENTRY FOR BOYS 

in simple language, including 
chapters on drawing, laying out 
work, designing and architecture 

WITH 250 ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS 



By J. S. ZERBE, M.E. 

AUTHOR OP 
ELECTRICITY FOR BOYS PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS 




THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY 

New York 



TH5607 

.2^ 



Copyright, 1914, by 
THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY 



/»4 
M -5 J9I4 

©CI,A3T6'28 3 




CONTENTS 

Introductory 

I. Tools and Their Uses Page 5 

Knowledge of Tools. A Full Kit of Tools. The Hatchet. 
The Claw Hammer. About Saws — Cross-cut, Eip Saw, 
Back Saw. Planes — ^Jack Plane, Smoothing Plane, Fore 
Plane. Gages. Chisels — Firmer Chisel. Trusses. Saw 
Clamps. The Grindstone. Oilstone. Miter Box. The 
Work Bench. 

II. How TO Grind and Sharpen Tools Page 16 

Care of Tools — First Requisites. Saws — How to Set. 
Saw-set Errors. Saw Setting Block. Filing. The An- 
gle of Filing. Filing Pitch. Saw Clamps. Filing Sug- 
gestions. The File, Using the File. The Grindstone. 
In the Use of Grindstones. Correct Way of Holding 
Tool in Grinding. Care of Stone. Incorrect Way to 
Hold Tool. Way to Revolve or Turn Grindstone. The 
Plane. The Gage. Chisels. General Observations. 

III. How TO Hold and Handle Tools Page 29 

On the Holding of Tools. The Saw. How to Start a 
Saw. Sawing on a Line. The First Stroke. The Start- 
ing Cut for Cross-cutting. Forcing a Saw. The Stroke. 
The Chinese Saw. Things to Avoid. The Plane. Angle 
for Holding Planes. Errors to be Avoided. The Gage. 
Holding the Gage. The Draw-knife. 



ii CONTENTS 

IV. How TO Design Articles Page 39 

Fundamentals of Designing. The Commercial Instinct. 
First Requirements of Designing. Conventional Styles. 
The Mission Style. Cabinets. Harmony of Parts. Har- 
mony of Wood. 

V. How Work is Laid Out Page 43 

Concrete Examples of Work. Dimensions. Laying Out 
a Table. The Top. The Mortises. The Facing Boards. 
The Tenons. Tools Used. Chamfered Tenons. The 
Frame. The Drawer Support. The Table Frame. The 
Top. The Drawer. How Any Structure is Built Up. 
Observations About Making a Box. Points. Beveling 
and Mitering. Proper Terms. Picture Frames. Dovetail 
Points. Box Points. First Steps in Dovetailing. Cut- 
ting Out the Spaces. Tools Used in Laying Out Mor- 
tises and Tenons. 

VL The Uses of the Compass and the Square Page 59 

The Compass. Determining Angles. Definition of De- 
grees. Degrees Without a Compass. How Degrees are 
Calculated by the Dividers. 

VIL How the Different Structural Parts are Desig- 
nated Page 65 

Importance of Proper Designation. How to Explain 
Mechanical Forms. Defining Segment and Sector. Ar- 
cade, Arch, Buttress, Flying Buttress, Chamfer, Cotter, 
Crenelated, Crosses, Curb Roof, Cupola, Crown Post, 
Corbels, Dormer, Dowel, Drip, Detent, Extrados, En- 
grailed, Facet, Fret, Fretwork, Frontal, Frustrums, Fyl- 
fot, Gambrel Roof, Gargoyle, Gudgeon, Guilloche. Half 
Timbered, Hammer Beam, Header, Hip Roof, Hood 



CONTENTS iii 

Molding, Inclave, Interlacing Arch, Inverted, Inverted 
Arch, Key Stone, King Post, Label, Louver, Lintel, Lug, 
M-Roof, Mansard Roof, Newel, Parquetry, Peen, Pend- 
ant, Pendastyle, Pedestal, Plinth, Portico, Plate, Queen 
Post, Quirk Molding, Re-entering Angle, Rafter, Scarf- 
ing, Scotia Molding, Sill, Skewback, Spandrel, Strut, 
Stud, Stile, Tie Beam, Timber, Trammel, Turret, Tran- 
som, Valley Roof. 

VIII. Drawing and Its Utility Page 73 

Fundamentals in Drawing. Representing Objects. 
Forming Lines and Shadows. Analysis of Lines and 
Shadings. How to Show Plain Surfaces. Concave Sur- 
faces. Convex Surfaces. Shadows from a Beam. Flat 
Effects. The Direction of Light. Raised Surfaces. De- 
pressed Surfaces. Full Shading. Illustrating Cube 
Shading. Shading Effect. Heavy Lines. Perspectives. 
True Perspective of a Cube. Isometric Cube. Flat- 
tened Perspective. Technical Designations. Sector and 
Segment. Terms of Angles. Circles and Curves. Ir- 
regular Curves. Ellipses and Ovals. Focal Points. Pro- 
duced Line. Spirals, Perpendicular and Vertical. Signs 
to Indicate Measurement. Dejfinitions. Abscissa. Angle. 
Apothegm. Apsides or Apsis. Chord. Cycloid. Conoid. 
Conic Section. Ellipsoid. Epicycloid. Evolute. Flying 
Buttress. Focus. Gnomes. Hexagon. Hyperbola. Hy- 
pothenuse. Incidental. Isosceles. Triangle. Parabola. 
Parallelogram. Pelecoid. Polygons. Pyramid. Rhomb. 
Sector. Segment. Sinusoid. Tangent. Tetrahedron. 
Vertex. 

IX. Moldings, with Practical Illustrations in Embel- 
lishing Work Page 93 

Moldings. The Basis of Moldings. The Simplest Mold- 



iv CONTENTS 

ings. The Astragal. The Cavetto. The Ovolo. The 
Torus. The Apothegm. The Cymatium. The Ogee. 
Ogee Recta. Ogee Reversa. The Reedy. The Casement. 
The Roman-Doric Column. Lesson from the Doric 
Column. Applying Molding. Base. Embellishments. 
Straight-faced Molding. Plain Molding. Base. Diversi- 
fied Uses. Shadows Cast by Moldings. 

X. An Analysis of Tenoning, Mortising, Rabbeting and 

Beading Page 104 

Where Mortises Should be Used. Depth of Mortises. 
Rule for Mortises. True Mortise Work. Steps in Cut- 
ting Mortises. Things to Avoid in Mortising. Lap-and- 
Butt Joints. Scarfing. The Tongue and Groove. Bead- 
ing. Ornamental Bead Finish. The Bead and Rabbet. 
Shading with Beads and Rabbets. 

XI. House Building Page 113 

House Building. The Home and Embellishments. Beau- 
ty Not Ornamentation. Plain Structures. Colonial 
Type. The Roof the Keynote. Bungalow Types. Gen- 
eral House Building. Building Plans. The Plain 
Square-Floor Plan. The Rectangular Plan. Room Meas- 
urements. Front and Side Lines. The Roof. Roof Pitch. 
The Foundation. The Sills. The Flooring Joist. The 
Studding. Setting Up. The Plate. Intermediate Stud- 
ding. Wall Headers. Ceiling Joist. Braces. The Raft- 
ers. The Gutter. Setting Door and Window Frames. 
Plastering and Finish Work. 

XII. Bridges, Trussed Work and Like Structures. .Page 130 
Bridges. Self-supporting Roofs. Common Trusses. The 
Vertical Upright Truss. The Warren Girder. The Bow- 
string Girder. Fundamental Truss Forms. 



CONTENTS V 

XIII. The Best Woods for the Beginner Page 134 

The Best Woods. Soft Woods. Hard Woods. The Most 
Difficult Woods. The Hard-ribbed Grain in Wood. The 
Easiest Working Woods. Differences in the Working of 
Woods. Forcing Saws in Wood. 

XIV. Wood Turning Page 138 

Advantages of Wood Turning. Simple Turning Lathe. 
The Rails. The Legs. Centering Blocks. The Tail- 
stock. The Tool Rest. Materials. The Mandrel. Fly- 
wheel. The Tools Required. 

XV. On the Use of Stains Page 147 

Soft Wood. Use of Stains. Stains as Imitations. 
Good Taste in Staining. Great Contrasts Bad. Staining 
Contrasting Woods. Hard Wood Imitations. Natural 
Effects. Natural Wood Stains. Polishing Stained Sur- 
faces. 

XVI. The Carpenter and the Architect .Page 152 

XVII. Useful Articles to Make Page 155 

Common Bench. Its Proportions. Square Top Stool. 
Folding Blacking Box. Convenient Easel. Hanging 
Bookrack. Sad Iron Holder. Bookcase. Wood-box. 
Parallel Bars for Boys' Use. Mission Writing Desk. 
Screen Frame. Mission Chair. Grandfather's Clock. 
Knockdown and Adjustable Bookcase. Coal Scuttle 
Frame or Case. Mission Arm Chair. Dog-house. 
Settle, With Convenient Shelves. Towel Rack. Sofa 
Framework. 

XVIII. Special Tools and Their Uses Page 170 

Bit and Level Adjuster. Miter Boxes. Swivel Arm Up- 
rights. Movable Stops. Angle Dividers. "Odd Job" 



vi CONTENTS 

Tool. Bit Braces. Ratchet Mechanism. Interlocking 
Jaws. Steel Frame Breast Drills. Horizontal Boring. 
3-Jaw Chuck. Planes. Rabbeting, Beading and Match- 
ing. Cutter Adjustment. Depth Gage. Slitting Gage. 
Dovetail Tongue and Groove Plane. Router Planes. 
Bottom Surfacing. Door Trim Plane. 

XIX. Roofing Trusses Page 185 

Characteristics of Trusses. Tie Beams. Ornamenta- 
tion. Objects of Beams, Struts and Braces. Utilizing 
Space. Types of Structures. Gambrel Roof. Purlin 
Roof. The Princess Truss. Arched, or Cambered, "He 
Beam Truss. The Mansard. Scissors Beam. Braced 
Collar Beam. Rib and Collar Truss. Hammer-beam 
Truss. Flying Buttress. 

XX. On the Construction of Joints Page 197 

Definition and Uses. DijQferent Types. Bridle Joint. 
Spur Tenon. Saddle Joints. Joggle Joint. Heel 
Joints. Stub Tenon. Tusk Tenon. Double Tusk Tenon. 
Cogged Joints. Anchor Joints. Deep Anchor Joints. 

XXL Some Mistakes and a Little Advice in Carpen- 
try Page 205 

Lessons From Mistakes. Planing the Edge of a Board 
Straight. Planing it Square. Planing to Dimensions. 
Holding the Plane. How it Should be Run on the Edge 
of the Board. Truing With the Weight of the Plane. 
A Steady Grasp. In Smoothing Boards. Correct Sand- 
papering. Gluing. Removing Surplus Glue. Work 
Edge and Work Side. The Scribing and Marking Line. 
Finishing Surfaces. Sawing a Board Square. The 
Stroke of the Saw. Sawing Out of True. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG. 

1. A typical work bench Frontispiece 

PAGE 

2. Hatchet 6 

3. Hammer 7 

4. Common saw 7 

5. Plane 8 

6. Jack plane bit 9 

6a. Fore plane bit 10 

7. Firmer chisel 11 

7a. Mortising chisel 12 

8. Trestle 12 

9. Miter box 13 

10. Incorrect saw setting 17 

10a. Correct saw setting 17 

11. Saw setting device 17 

12. Filing angle 18 

13. Rip saw teeth 19 

14. Cross cut saw teeth 20 

15. Filing clamp 21 

16. Grindstone 23 

17. Correct manner of holding tool 24 

18. Incorrect way of holding tool 24 

19. Gage 26 

20. Starting a saw 31 

21. Wrong sawing angle 32 

22. Correct sawing angle 33 

23. Thrust cut 34 

24. Chinese saw 34 

25. Moving angle for plane 35 

26. Holding gage 36 

27. Laying out table leg 43 

28. The first marking line 44 

29. Scribing mortise line 44 

2 vii 



viii LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS 

FIG. PAGE 

30. The corner mortises 44 

31. The side rail 46 

32. Scribing the tenons 46 

33. Cross scoring 47 

34. The tenon 47 

35. Finishing the tenon 47 

36. The tenon and mortise 48 

37. The drawer support 48 

38. Drawer cleats 49 

39. Assembled table frame 50 

40. The top 51 

41. The drawer 52 

42. Bevel joint 53 

43. Miter joint 53 

44. Picture frame joint 54 

45. Initial marks for dovetails 55 

46. End marks for dovetails 55 

47. Angles for dovetails 55 

48. Cutting out recesses for dovetails 56 

49. Tongues for dovetails 56 

50. Recess for dovetails 56 

51. Determining angles 61 

52. Marking degrees 63 

53. Angles from base lines 63 

54. Stepping off spaces 63 

55. Arcade 67 

56. Arch 67 

57. Buttress 67 

58. Chamfer 67 

59. Cooter 67 

60. Crenelated 67 

61. Crosses 67 

62. Curb roof 67 

63. Cupola 67 

64. Console 67 

65. Corbels 67 

66. Dormer 67 

67. Dowel 67 

68. Drips 67 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ix 

FIG. PAGE 

69. Detail 68 

70. Extrados 68 

71. Engrailed 68 

72. Facet 68 

73. Fret 68 

74. Frontal 68 

75. Frustrums 68 

76. Fylfat 68 

77. Gambrel 68 

78. Gargoyle 68 

79. Gudgeon 68 

80. Guilloche 68 

81. Half timbered 68 

82. Hammer beam 68 

83. Haunches 69 

84. Header 69 

85. Hip roof 69 

86. Hood molding 69 

87. Inclave 69 

88. Interlacing arch 69 

89. Invected 69 

90. Inverted arch 69 

91. Keystone 69 

92. King post 69 

93. Label 69 

94. Louver 69 

95. Lintel 70 

96. Lug 70 

97. M-roof 70 

98. Mansard roof 70 

99. Newel post 70 

100. Parquetry 70 

101. Peen, or pein 70 

102. Pendant 70 

103. Pentastyle 70 

104. Pedestal 70 

105. Pintle 70 

106. Portico 70 

107. Plate 70 



X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG. PAGE 

108. Queen post 71 

109. Quirk molding 71 

110. Re-entering 71 

111. Rafter 71 

112. Scarfing 71 

113. Scotia molding 71 

114. Sill 71 

115. Skew back 71 

116. Spandrel 71 

117. Strut 71 

118. Stud, studding 71 

119. Stile 72 

120. Trammel 72 

121. Turret 72 

122. Transom 72 

123. Valley roof 72 

125. Plain line 74 

126. Concave shading 74 

i 127. Convex shading 74 

128. Wave shading 75 

' 129. Light past concave surface 75 

I 130. Light past convex surface 75 

\ 131. Plain surface 75 

132. Outlines 76 

133. Raised surface 77 

134. Depressed surface 77 

135. Shading raised surfaces 78 

136. Shading depressed surfaces 78 

137. Plain cubical outline 79 

138. Indicating cube 79 

139. Confused lines 79 

140. Heavy horizontal lines 80 

141. Heavy vertical lines 80 

142. Isometric cube 81 

143. Cube and circle 81 

144. Flattened perspective 82 

145. Angles in isometric cube 83 

146. Plain circle 84 

147. Sphere shading 84 



LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS xi 

FIG. PAGE 

148. Drawing regular ellipse 86 

149. Drawing irregular ellipse 88 

150. Drawing spiral 89 

151. Abscissa 90 

152. Angle 91 

153. Apothegm 91 

154. Apsides, or apsis 91 

155. Chord 91 

156. Convolute 91 

157. Conic sections 91 

158. Conoid 91 

159. Cycloid 91 

160. Ellipsoid 91 

161. Epicycloid 91 

162. Evolute 91 

163. Focus 91 

164. Gnome 91 

165. Hyperbola 91 

167. Hypothenuse 91 

168. Incidence 92 

169. Isosceles triangle 92 

170. Parabola 92 

171. Parallelogram 92 

172. Pel^coid 92 

173. Polygons 92 

174. Pyramid 92 

175. Quadrant 92 

176. Quadrilateral 92 

177. Khomb 92 

178. Sector 92 

179. Segment 92 

180. Sinusoid 92 

181. Tangent 92 

182. Tetrahedron 92 

183. Vertex 92 

184. Volute 92 

185. Band (molding) 94 

186. Astragal (molding) 94 

187. Cavetto (molding) 94 



xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

MG. PAGE 

188. Ovolo (molding) 94 

189. Torus (molding) 95 

190. Apophyges (molding) 95 

191. Cymatium (molding) 95 

192. Ogee-recta (molding) 95 

193. Ogee-reversa (molding) 96 

194. Bead (molding) • 96 

195. Casement (molding) 97 

196. The Doric column 98 

197. Front of cabinet 100 

198. Facia board 100 

199. Molding on facia board 100 

200. Ogee-recta on facia 101 

201. Trim below facia 101 

202. Trim below ogee 101 

203. Trim above base 102 

204. Trim above base molding 102 

205. Shadows cast by plain moldings 103 

206. Mortise and tenon joint 105 

207. Incorrect mortising 105 

208. Steps in mortising 106 

209. The shoulders of tenons 108 

210. Lap-and-butt joint 108 

211. Panel joint 109 

212. Scarfing 109 

213. Tongue and groove 110 

214. Beading 110 

215. Outside beading finish 110 

216. Edge beading 11 

217. Corner beading 11 

218. Point beading 11 

219. Round edge beading 11 

220. Beading and molding 11 

221. First square house plan 11 

222. First rectangular house plan 118 

223. Square house to scale 119 

224. Rectangular house to scale 120 

225. Front elevation of square house 121 

226. Elevation of rectangular house 121 



LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS xiii 

FIG. PAGE 

227. Illustrating one-third pitch 122 

228. Illustrating half pitch ^ 122 

229. The sills at the corner 123 

230. The joist and sills 123 

231. The plate splice 124 

232. The rafters 125 

233. The gutter 126 

234. The cornice 127 

234a. The finish without gutter 128 

235. Common truss 130 

236. Upright truss 131 

237. Vertical upright truss 131 

238. Warren girder 132 

239. Extended Warren girder 132 

240. Bowstring girder 132 

241. Frame details of wood turning lathe 139 

242. Tail stock details 133 

243. Tool rest details 142 

244. Section of mandrel 143 

245. View of turning lathe 145 

246. Turning tools 146 

247. Bench 155 

248. Stool 156 

249. Blacking box 156 

250. Easel 157 

251. Hanging book rack 158 

252. Book shelf 159 

253. Wood box 160 

254. Horizontal bars 161 

255. Mission desk 161 

256. Screen frame 162 

257. Mission chair 162 

258. Grandfather's clock 163 

259. Frame for bookcase 164 

260. Coal scuttle case 165 

261. Mission arm chair 165 

262. Dog house 166 

263. Settle 167 

264. Towel rack 168 



xiv LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS 

FIG. PAGE 

265. Mission sofa frame 168 

266. Bit and square level 170 

267. Metal miter box 171 

268. Parts of metal miter box 172 

269. Angle dividers 173 

270. An "odd job" tool 174 

271. Universal- jaw brace 176 

272. Taper-shank bit brace 176 

273. Alligator-jaw brace 176 

274. Steel frame breast drill 177 

275. Steel frame breast drill 177 

276. Steel frame dreast drill 177 

277. Details of metal plane 179 

278. Rabbet, matching and dado plane 180 

279. Molding and beading plane 181 

280. Dovetail tongue and groove plane 182 

281. Router planes 183 

282. Router planes 183 

283. Door trim plane 184 

284. Gambrel roof 187 

285. Purlin roof 188 

286. Princess truss 189 

287. Arched, or cambered, tie beam 190 

288. The mansard 191 

289. Scissors beam 192 

290. Braced collar beam 193 

291. Rib and collar truss 194 

291i. Hammer-beam truss 195 

292. Bridle joints 197 

293. Spur tenons 198 

294. Saddle joints 198 

295. Joggle joints 199 

296. Framing joints 199 

297. Heel joints 200 

298. Stub tenon 200 

299. Tusk tenon 201 

300. Double tusk tenon 202 

301. Cogged joints 203 

302. Anchor joint 203 

303. Deep anchor joint 204 



CARPENTRY 

A PRACTICAL COURSE, WHICH TELLS IN CONCISE AND 
SIMPLE FORM "HOW TO DO IT" 



INTRODUCTORY 

Caepentby is the oldest of the arts, and it has 
been said that the knowledge necessary to make a 
good carpenter fits one for almost any trade or 
occupation requiring the use of tools. The 
hatchet, the saw, and the plane are the three 
primal implements of the carpenter. The value 
is in knowing how to use them. 

The institution of Manual Training Schools 
everywhere is but a tardy recognition of the value 
of systematic training in the use of tools. There 
is no branch of industry which needs such diversi- 
fication, in order to become ejfficient. 

The skill of the blacksmith is centered in his 
ability to forge, to weld, and to temper ; that of the 
machinist depends upon the callipered dimensions 
of his product; the painter in his taste for har- 
mony; the mason on his ability to cut the stone 
accurately; and the plasterer to produce a uni- 
form surface. But the carpenter must, in order 
to be an expert, combine all these qualifications, 



2 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

in a greater or less degree, and his vocation may 
justly be called the King of Trades. Eightly, 
therefore, it should be cultivated in order to learn 
the essentials of manual training work. 

But there is another feature of the utmost im- 
portance and value, which is generally overlooked, 
and on which there is placed too little stress, even 
in many of the manual training schools. The 
training of the mind has been systematized so as 
to bring into operation the energies of all the 
brain cells. Manual training to be efficient should, 
at the same time, be directed into such channels 
as will most widely stimulate the muscular devel- 
opment of the child, while at the same time cul- 
tivating his mind. 

There is no trade which offers such a useful 
field as carpentry. It may be said that the vari- 
ous manual operations bring into play every 
muscle of the body. 

The saw, the plane, the hammer, the chisel, each 
requires its special muscular energy. The car- 
penter, unlike the blacksmith, does not put all 
his brawn into his shoulders, nor develop his 
torso at the expense of his other muscles, like 
the mason. It may also be said that, unlike most 
other occupations, the carpenter has both out-of- 
door and indoor exercise, so that he is at all 
times able to follow his occupation, summer or 



INTEODUCTORT 3 

winter, rain or shine; and this also further illus- 
trates the value of this branch of endeavor as a 
healthful recreation. 

It is the aim of this book to teach boys the 
primary requirements — not to generalize — ^but to 
show how to prepare and how to do the work; 
what tools and materials to use ; and in what man- 
ner the tools used may be made most serviceable, 
and used most advantageously. 

It would be of no value to describe and illustrate 
how a bracket is made; or how the framework 
of a structure is provided with mortises and tenons 
in order to hold it together. The boy must have 
something as a base which will enable him to 
design his own creations, and not be an imitator; 
his mind must develop with his body. It is the 
principal aim of this book to give the boy some- 
thing to think about while he is learning how to 
bring each individual part to perfection. 

If the boy understands that there is a principle 
underlying each structural device ; that there is a 
reason for making certain things a definite way, 
he is imbued with an incentive which will sooner 
or later develop into an initiative of his own. 

It is this phase in the artisan's life which deter- 
mines whether he will be merely a machine or an 
intelligent organism. 

This work puts together in a simple, concise 



4 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

form, not only the fundamentals which every 
mechanic should learn to know, but it defines every 
structural form used in this art, and illustrates all 
terms it is necessary to use in the employment of 
carpentry. A full chapter is devoted to drawings 
practically applied. All terms are diagrammed 
and defined, so that the mind may readily grasp 
the ideas involved. 

Finally, it will be observed that every illustra- 
tion has been specially drawn for this book. We 
have not adopted the plan usually followed in 
books of this class, of taking stock illustrations 
of manufacturers' tools and devices, nor have we 
thought it advisable to take a picture of a tool 
or a machine and then write a description around 
it. We have illustrated the book to explain ^^how 
to do the work'^; also, to teach the boy what the 
trade requires, and to give him the means whereby 
he may readily find the form of every device, tool, 
and structure used in the art. 



CARPENTRY FOR BOYS 



CHAPTER I 



TOOLS AISTD THEIR USES 

Knowledge of Tools. — A knowledge of tools and 
their uses is the first and most important require- 
ment. The saw, the plane, the hatchet and the 
hammer are well known to all boys; but how to 
use them, and where to use the different varieties 
of each kind of tool, mnst be learned, because 
each tool grew out of some particular require- 
ment in the art. These uses will now be explained. 

A Full Kit of Tools. — A kit of tools necessary 
for doing any plain work should embrace the fol- 
lowing: 

1. A Hatchet. 

2. A Claw Hammer — two 

sizes preferred. 

3. Cross-cut Saw, 20 inches 

long. 



4. Rip Saw, 24 inches long. 

5. Wooden Mallet. 

6. Jack Plane. 

7. Smoothing Plane. 

8. Compass Saw. 

9. Brace. 

10. Bits for Brace, ranging 

from 14 inch to 1 inch 
diameter. 

11. Several small Gimlets. 

12. Square. 

13. Compass. 

14. Draw-knife. 

15. Rule. 



16. Two Gages. 

17. Set of Firmer Chisels. 

18. Two Mortising Chisels. 

19. Small Back Saw. 

20. Saw Clamps. 

21. Miter Box. 

22. Bevel Square. 

23. Small Hand Square. 

24. Pliers. 

25. Pair of Awls. 

26. Hand Clamps. 

27. Set Files. 

28. Glue Pot. 

29. Oil Stone. 

30. Grindstone. 

31. Trusses. 

32. Work Bench. 

33. Plumb Bob. 

34. Spirit Level. 



6 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

The Hatchet. — The hatchet should be ground 
with a bevel on each side, and not on one side 
only, as is customary with a plasterer's lathing 
hatchet, because the blade of the hatchet is used 
for trimming off the edges of boards. Unless 
ground off with a bevel on both sides it cannot be 




controlled to cut accurately. A light hatchet is 
preferable to a heavy one. It should never be 
used for nailing purposes, except in emergencies. 
The pole of the hammer — that part which is gen- 
erally used to strike the nail with — is required in 
order to properly balance the hatchet when used 
for trimming material. 

The Claw Hammer. — This is the proper tool 
for driving nails and for drawing them out. 
Habits should be formed with the beginner, which 
will be of great service as the education proceeds. 



TOOLS AND THEIR USES 7 

One of these habits is to persist in using the 
tool for the purpose for which it was made. The 
expert workman (and he becomes expert because 
of it) makes the hammer do its proper work; and 
so with every other tool. 




jrtg.6. 




About Saws. — There are four well-defined 
kinds. First, a long, flat saw, for cross-cutting. 
Second, a slightly larger saw for ripping pur- 
poses. Third, a back saw, with a rib on the rear 
edge to hold the blade rigid, used for making 
tenons ; and, fourth, a compass or keyhole saw. 



8 



CARPENTRY FOR BOYS 



Cross-cuts. — The difference between a cross- 
cut and a rip saw is, that in the latter the teeth 
have less pitch and are usually larger than in 
the cross-cut saw. The illustrations (Figs. 13 
and 14) will distinctly show the difference in the 
teeth. When a cross-cut saw is used for ripping 
along the grain of the wood, the teeth, if disposed 
at an angle, will ride over the grain or fiber of the 




JT'z^.a. 



wood, and refuse to take hold or bite into the 
wood. On the other hand, if the rip saw is used 
for cross-cutting purposes, the saw kerf will be 
rough and jagged. 

The back saw is used almost exclusively for 
making tenons, and has uniformly fine teeth so 
as to give a smooth finish to the wood. 

Planes. — The plane may be called the aesthetic 
tool in the carpenter's kit. It is the most difficult 
tool to handle and the most satisfactory when 
thoroughly mastered. How to care for and 



TOOLS AND THEIR USES 9 

handle it will be referred to in a subsequent chap- 
ter. We are now concerned with its uses only. 
Each complete kit must have three distinct planes, 
namely, the jack plane, which is for taking off the 
rough saw print surface of the board. The short 
smoothing plane, which is designed to even up the 
inequalities made by the jack plane; and the 
long finishing plane, or fore plane, which is in- 
tended to straighten the edges of boards or of 
finished surfaces. 



jE^tt/,C ^Si^a^'^Mi^Uts 



The Jack Plane.— This plane has the cutting 
edge of its blade ground so it is slightly curved 
(Fig. 6), because, as the bit must be driven out 
so it will take a deep bite into the rough surface 
of the wood, the curved cutting edge prevents the 
corner edges of the bit from digging into the 
planed surface. 

On the other hand, the bits of the smoothing 
and finishing planes are ground straight across 
their cutting edges. In the foregoing we have not 
enumerated the different special planes, designed 

3 



10 CAEPENTRY FOE BOYS 

to make beads, rabbets, tongues and grooves, but 
each type is fully illustrated, so that an idea may 
be obtained of their characteristics. (Fig. 6a). 

Gages. — One of the most valuable tools in the 
whole set is the gage, but it is, in fact, the least 
known. This is simply a straight bar, with a 
sharpened point projecting out on one side near 




I^-^9' 



JTareL-p^an^ Alf ^. 



its end, and having an adjustable sliding head or 
cheekpiece. This tool is indispensable in making 
mortises or tenons, because the sharpened steel 
point which projects from the side of the bar, 
serves to outline and define the edges of the mor- 
tises or tenons, so that the cutting line may readily 
be followed. 

This is the most difficult tool to hold when in 
use, but that will be fully explained under its 
proper head. Each kit should have two, as in 
making mortises and tenons one gage is required 
for each side of the mortise or tenon. 

Chisels. — Two kinds are found in every kit — 



TOOLS AND THEIR USES 11 

one called the firmer (Fig. 7) and the mortising 
chisel. The firmer has a flat body or blade, and 
a full set ranges in width from three-eighths of 
an inch to two inches. The sizes most desirable 
and useful are the one-half inch, the inch and the 
inch-and-a-half widths. These are used for trim- 
ming out cross grains or rebates for setting door 



Jig.?. 



locks and hinges and for numerous other uses 
where sharp-end tools are required. 

The Mortising Chisel. — The mortising chisel 
(Fig. 7a), on the other hand, is very narrow and 
thick, with a long taper down to the cutting edge. 
They are usually in such widths as to make them 
stock sizes for mortises. Never, under any cir- 
cumstances, use a hammer or hatchet for driving 
chisels. The mallet should be used invariably. 

Trusses. — There should be at least two, each 
three feet in length and twenty inches in height. 

Saw Clamps. — These are necessary adjuncts, 
and should be made of hard wood, perfectly 



12 



CARPENTEY FOE BOYS 



straight and just wide enough to take in the nar- 
row back saw. The illustration shows their shape 
and form. 

The GRiNDSTo:tTEs. — ^It is better to get a first- 
class stone, which may be small and rigged up 




ji;g.7fi 




jF^tSM. 



with a foot treadle. A soft, fine-grained stone is 
most serviceable, and it should have a water tray, 
and never be used excepting with plenty of water. 
An Oil Stone is as essential as a grindstone. 
For giving a good edge to tools it is superior to 
a water stone. It should be provided with a top, 
and covered when not in use, to keep out dust 



TOOLS AND THEIE USES 



13 



and grit. These are the little things that con- 
tribute to success and should be carefully ob- 
served. 

The Miter Box. — This should be 14 inches long 
and 3" by 3" inside, made of hard wood f " thick. 
The sides should be nailed to the bottom, as shown. 

The Work Bench. — In its proper place we show 
in detail the most approved form of work bench, 
fitted with a tool rack to hold all the tools, con- 




Jp^tg.9. 



veniently arranged. In this chapter we are more 
particularly concerned with the uses of tools than 
their construction; and we impress on boys the 
necessity of having a place for everything, and 
that every tool should be kept in its proper place. 
A carpenter's shop filled with chips, shavings and 
other refuse is not a desirable place for the in- 
discriminate placing of tools. If correct habits 
are formed at the outset, by carefully putting each 
tool in its place after using, it will save many 
an hour of useless hunting and annoyance. 

One of the most important things in laying off 



14 CAEPENTRY FOR BOYS 

work, for instance, on trusses, is the disposition of 
the saw and square. Our illustration shows each 
truss with side cleats, which will permit the user 
temporarily to deposit the saw or the square so 
that it will be handy, and at the same time be 
out of the way of the work and prevent either of 
the tools from being thrown to the floor. 

In the same way, and for the same purpose, the 
work bench has temporary holding cleats at the 
end and a shelf in front, which are particularly 
desirable, because either a saw or a square is 
an encumbrance on a work bench while the work 
is being assembled, and tools of this kind should 
not be laid flat on a working surface, nor should 
they be stood in a leaning position against a truss 
or work bench. 

Strictly ob&erve these fundamentals — Never 
place a tool with the cutting edge toward you. 
Always have the racks or receptacles so made 
that the handle may be seized. Don^t put a tool 
with an exposed cutting edge above or below an- 
other tool in such a manner that the hand or the 
tool you are handling can come into contact with 
the edge. Never keep the nail or screw boxes 
above the work bench. They should always be 
kept to one side, to prevent, as much as possible, 
the bench from becoming a depository for nails. 
Keep the top of the bench free from t/)ols. Al- 



TOOLS AND THEIE USES 15 

ways keep the planes on a narrow sub-shelf at the 
rear of the bench. 

If order was Heaven's first law, it is a good 
principle to apply it in a workman's shop, and 
its observance will form a habit that will soon be- 
come a pleasure to follow. 



CHAPTER II 

HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN TOOLS 

Care of Tools. — Dull tools indicate the charac- 
ter of the workman. In an experience of over 
forty years, I have never known a good work- 
man to keep poorly sharpened tools. While it is 
true that the capacity to sharpen tools can be 
acquired only by practice, correct habits at the 
start will materially assist. In doing this part of 
the artisan's work, it should be understood that 
there is a right as well as a wrong way. 

There is a principle involved in the sharpening 
of every tool, which should be observed. A skilled 
artisan knows that there is a particular way to 
grind the bits of each plane; that the manner of 
setting a saw not only contributes to its useful- 
ness, but will materially add to the life of the saw ; 
that a chisel cannot be made to do good work un- 
less its cutting edge is square and at the right 
working angle. 

First Requisite. — A beginner should never at- 
tempt a piece of work until he learns how the dif- 
ferent tools should be sharpened, or at least learn 
the principle involved. Practice will make per- 
fect. 

16 



GRINDING AND SHAEPENING TOOLS 17 

Saws. — As the saw is such an important part 
of the kit, I shall devote some space to the sub- 
ject. First, as to setting the saw. The object of 
this is to make the teeth cut a wider kerf than the 
thickness of the blade, and thereby cause the saw 
to travel freely. A great many so-called "saw 
sets" are found in the market, many of them built 






jrtffjo. Ty^iOQ 



^ 




jb\ 


> ^ \ 









on wrong principles, as will be shown, and these 
are incapable of setting accurately. 

How TO Set. — To set a saw accurately, that is, 
to drive out each tooth the same distance, is the 
first requirement, and the second is to bend out 
the whole tooth, and not the point only. 

In the illustration (Fig. 10), the point is merely 
bent out. This is wrong. The right way is shown 



18 CAEPENTRY FOE BOYS 

in Fig. 10a. The whole tooth is bent, showing 
the correct way of setting. The reasons for 
avoiding one way and following the other are: 
First, that if the point projects to one side, each 
point or tooth will dig into the wood, and produce 
tooth prints in the wood, which make a roughened 
surface. Second, that if there are inequalities in 
setting the teeth (as is sure to be the case when 
only the points are bent out), the most exposed 

points will first wear out, and thereby cause 
saw deterioration. Third, a saw with the points 
sticking out causes a heavy, dragging cut, and 
means additional labor. Where the whole body 
of the tooth is bent, the saw will run smoothly and 
easily through the kerf and produce a smooth-cut 
surface. 

Our illustration (Fig. 11) shows a very simple 
setting block, the principal merit of which is that 
any boy can make it, and in the use of which he 
cannot go wrong in setting a tooth. 

Simple Saw Setter. — Take a block of wood, a 
4 by 4 inch studding, four inches long. Get a 



GEINDING AND SHAEPENING TOOLS 19 

piece of metal one-lialf inch thick and two inches 
square. Have a blacksmith or machinist bore a 
quarter-inch hole through it in the center and 
countersink the upper side so it may be securely 
fastened in a mortise in the block, with its upper 
side flush with the upper surface of the block. 
Now, with a file, finish off one edge, going back 
for a quarter of an inch, the angle at A to be about 
12 degrees. 




JF^y, /?. StZp'it^S:^' 



FiLiKG Angles. — In its proper place will be 
shown how you may easily calculate and measure 
degrees in work of this kind. Fig. 12 shows an 
approximation to the right angle. B, B (Fig. 11) 
should be a pair of wooden pegs, driven into the 
wooden block on each side of the metal piece. 
The teeth of the saw rest against the pegs 
so that they serve as a guide or a gage, and the 
teeth of the saw, therefore, project over the in- 
clined part (B) of the metal block. Now, with 



20 CAEPENTET FOE BOYS 

an ordinary punch and a hammer, each alter- 
nate tooth may be driven down until it rests 
flat on the inclined face (A), so that it is impossi- 
ble to set the teeth wrongly. When you glance 
down the end of a properly set saw, you will see 
a V-shaped channel, and if you will place a needle 
in the groove and hold the saw at an angle, the 
needle will travel down without falling out. 




Filing. — The next step is the filing. Two 
things must be observed : the pitch and the angle. 
By pitch is meant the inclination of the teeth. 
Note the illustration (Fig. 13), which shows the 
teeth of a rip saw. You will see at A that the 
pitch of the tooth is at right angles to the edge 
of the saw. In Fig. 14, which shows the teeth of a 
cross-cut saw, the pitch (B) is about 10 degrees 
off. The teeth of the rip saw are also larger 
than those of the cross-cut. 

The Angle of Filing. — By angle is meant the 
cutting position of the file. In Fig. 12, the lines 



GEINDING AND SHAEPENING TOOLS 21 

B represent the file disposed at an angle of 12 
degrees, not more, for a rip saw. For a cross- 
cut the angle of the file may be less. 

Saw Clamps. — Yon may easily make a pair of 
saw clamps as follows : 

Take two pieces of hard wood, each three inches 
wide, seven-eighths of an inch thick, and equal 
in length to the longest saw. Bevel one edge of 






o 




each as shown in A (Fig. 15), so as to leave an 
edge (B) about one-eighth of an inch thick. At 
one end cut away the corner on the side opposite 
the bevel, as shown at C, so the clamps will fit 
on the saw around the saw handle. 

When the saw is placed between these clamps 
and held together by the jaws of the vise, you 
are ready for the filing operation. Observe the 
following filing suggestions: Always hold the file 
horizontal or level. In filing, use the whole length 
of the file. Do the work by a slow, firm sweep. 

Do not file all of the teeth along the saw at one 
operation, but only the alternate teeth, so as to 



22 CARPENTEY FOE BOYS 

keep the file at the same angle, and thus insure 
accuracy ; then turn the saw and keep the file con- 
stantly at one angle for the alternate set of teeth. 

Give the same number of strokes, and exert the 
same pressure on the file for each tooth, to insure 
uniformity. Learn also to make a free, easy and 
straight movement back and forth with the file. 

The File. — In order to experiment with the fil- 
ing motion, take two blocks of wood, and try sur- 
facing them off with a file. When you place the 
two filed surfaces together after the first trial 
both will be convex, because the hands, in filing, 
unless you exert the utmost vigilance, will assume 
a crank-like movement. The filing test is so to file 
the two blocks that they will fit tightly together 
without rolling on each other. Before shaping 
and planing machines were invented, machinists 
were compelled to plane down and accurately fin- 
ish off surfaces with a file. 

In using the files on saws, however small the 
file may be, one hand should hold the handle and 
the other hand the tip of the file. 

A file brush should always be kept on hand, as 
it pays to preserve files by cleaning them. 

The Grindstone. — As most of the tools require 
a grindstone for sharpening purposes, an illustra- 
tion is given as a guide, with a diagram to show 
the proper grinding angle. In Fig. 16 the up- 



GEINDING AND SHAEPENING TOOLS 23 

right (A) of the frame serves as a line for the 
eye, so that if the point of the tool is brought 
to the sight line, and the tool (C) held level, 
you will always be able to maintain the correct 
angle. There is no objection to providing a rest, 




T^i^je. 



for instance, like the cross bars (D, D), but the 
artisan disdains such contrivances, and he usually 
avoids them for two reasons: First, because 
habit enables him to hold the tool horizontally; 
and, second, by holding the tool firmly in the hand 
he has better control of it. There is only one 
thing which can be said in favor of a rest, and 



24 



CAEPENTRY FOE BOYS 



that is, the stone may be kept truer circumferen- 
tially, as all stones have soft spots or sides. 

In the Use of Grindstones. — There are certain 
things to avoid and to observe in the nse of stones. 
Never nse one spot on the stone, however narrow 
the tool may be. Always move the tool from side 
to side. Never grind a set of narrow tools suc- 




4Ftff.t7.Qs££SSii: 



cessively. If yon have chisels to grind intersperse 
their grinding with plane bits, hatchet or other 
broad cutting tools, so as to prevent the stone 
from having grooves therein. Never nse a tool 
on a stone unless you have water in the tray. 

Correct Way to Hold Tool for Grinding. — 
There is a correct way to hold each tool ; see illus- 
tration (Fig. 17). The left hand should grasp 
the tool firmly, near the sharp edge, as shown, and 
the right hand should loosely hold the tool behind 



GEINDING AND SHARPENINa TOOLS 25 

the left hand. There is a reason for this which 
will be apparent after you grind a few tools. The 
firm grasp of the left hand gives you absolute 
control of the blade, so it cannot turn, and when 
inequalities appear in the grindstone, the rigid 
hold will prevent the blade from turning, and 
thus enable you to correct the inequalities of the 
stone. Bear in mind, the stone should be taken 
care of just as much as the tools. An experienced 
workman is known by the condition of his tools, 
and the grindstone is the best friend he has among 
his tools. 

Incokeect Way to Hold Tool foe Geinding. — 
The incorrect way of holding a tool is shown in 
Fig. 18. This, I presume, is the universal way 
in which the novice takes the tool. It is wrong for 
the reason that the thumbs of both hands are on 
top of the blade, and they serve as pivots on which 
the tool may turn. The result is that the corners 
of the tool will dig into the stone to a greater or 
less degree, particularly if it has a narrow blade, 
like a chisel. 

Try the experiment of grinding a quarter-inch 
chisel by holding it the incorrect way; and then 
grasp it firmly with the left hand, and you will at 
once see the difference. 

The left hand serves both as a vise and as a 

4 



26 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



fulcrum, whereas the right hand controls the angle 
of the tool. 

These remarks apply to all chisels, plane bits 
and tools of that character, bnt it is obvious that 
a drawknif e, which is always held by the handles 




in grinding, and hatchets, axes and the like, cannot 
be held in the same manner. 

A too common error is to press the tool too hard 
on the stone. This is wrong. Do not try to force 
the grinding. 

Then, again, it is the practice of some to turn 
the stone away from the tool. The stone should 
always move toward the tool, so as to prevent 
forming a feather edge. 



GEINDING AND SHAEPENING TOOLS 27 

The Plane. — Indiscriminate use of planes 
should be avoided. Never use the fore or smooth- 
ing planes on rough surfaces. The jack plane is 
the proper tool for this work. On the other hand, 
the fore plane should invariably be used for 
straightening the edges of boards, or for fine 
surfacing purposes. As the jack plane has its 
bit ground with a curved edge, it is admirably 
adapted for taking off the rough saw print sur- 
face. 

The Gage. — The illustration (Fig. 19) shows 
one of the most useful tools in the kit. It is used 
to scribe the thickness of the material which is 
to be dressed down, or for imprinting the edges 
of tenons and mortises. Two should be provided 
in every kit, for convenience. 

The scribing point should be sharpened with a 
file, the point being filed to form a blade, which 
is at right angles to the bar, or parallel with the 
movable cheekpiece. 

Chisels. — I have already pointed out, in gen- 
eral, how to hold tools for grinding purposes, this 
description applying particularly to chisels, but 
several additional things may be added. 

Always be careful to grind the chisel so its cut- 
ting edge is square with the side edge. This will 
be difficult at first, but you will see the value of 
this as you use the tool. For instance, in mak- 



28 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

ing rebates for hinges, or recesses and mortises 
for locks, the tool will invariably run crooked, 
unless it is ground square. 

The chisel should never be struck with a ham- 
mer or metal instrument, as the metal pole or 
peon of the hammer will sliver the handle. The 
wooden mallet should invariably be used. 

Gejstekal Observations. — ^If the workman will 
carefully observe the foregoing requirements he 
will have taken the most important steps in the 
knowledge of the art. If he permits himself to 
commence work without having his tools in first- 
class condition, he is trying to do work under cir- 
cumstances where even a skilled workman is liable 
to fail. 

Avoid making for yourself a lot of unnecessary 
work. The best artisans are those who try to 
find out and know which is the best tool, or how 
to make a tool for each requirement, but that tool, 
to be serviceable, must be properly made, and that 
means it must be rightly sharpened. 



CHAPTER III 

HOW TO HOLD AND HANDLE TOOLS 

Observation may form part of each boy^s lesson, 
but wben it comes to the handling of tools, prac- 
tice becomes the only available means of making 
a workman. Fifty years of observation would 
never make an observer an archer or a marksman, 
nor would it enable him to shoe a horse or to 
build a table. 

It sometimes happens that an apprentice will, 
with little observation, seize a saw in the proper 
way, or hold a plane in the correct manner, and, 
in time, the watchful boy will acquire fairly cor- 
rect habits. But why put in useless time and 
labor in order to gain that which a few well- 
directed hints and examples will convey? 

Tools are made and are used as short cuts to- 
ward a desired end. Before the saw was in- 
vented the knife was used laboriously to sever 
and shape the materials. Before planes were in- 
vented a broad, flat sharpened blade was used to 
smooth off surfaces. Holes were dug out by 
means of small chisels requiring infinite patience 
and time. Each succeeding tool proclaimed a 
shorter and an easier way to do a certain thing. 

29 



30 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

The man or boy wlio can make a new labor-saving 
tool is worthy of as much praise as the man who 
makes two blades of grass grow where one grew 
before. 

Let us now thoroughly understand how to hold 
and use each tool. That is half the value of the 
tool itself. 

The Saw. — ^With such a commonplace article 
as the saw, it might be assumed that the ordinary 
apprentice would look upon instruction with a 
smile of derision. 

How TO Start a Saw.— If the untried apprentice 
has such an opinion set him to work at the task 
of cutting off a board accurately on a line. He 
will generally make a failure of the attempt to 
start the saw true to the line, to say nothing of 
following the line so the kerf is true and square 
with the board. 

How TO Start on a Line. — The first mistake he 
makes is to saw on the line. This should never be 
done. The work should be so laid out that the 
saw kerf is on the discarded side of the material. 
The saw should cut alongside the line, and the line 
should not be obliterated in the cutting. Mate- 
rial must be left for trimming and finishing. 

The First Stroke. — Now, to hold the saw in 
starting is the difficult task to the beginner. Once 
mastered it is simple and easy. The only time in 



TO HOLD AND HANDLE TOOLS 31 

which the saw should be firmly held by the hand 
is during the initial cut or two ; afterwards always 
hold the handle loosely. There is nothing so tir- 
ing as a tightly grasped saw. The saw has but 
one handle, hence it is designed to be used with 
one hand. Sometimes, with long and tiresome 




Tlg.^0 



jobs, in ripping, two hands may be used, but one 
hand can always control a saw better than two 
hands. 

The Starting Cut. — ^In order to make our un- 
derstanding of the starting cut more explicit, we 
refer to Fig. 20, in which the thumb of the left 
hand is shown in the position of a guide — the end 
of the thumb being held up a suflScient distance to 



32 CAEPENTRY FOR BOYS 

clear the teeth. In this position yon need not 
fear that the teeth of the saw (A) will ride np 
over the thumb if yon have a firm grasp of the 
saw handle. 

The first stroke should be upwardly, not down- 
wardly. While in the act of drawing up the saw 
you can judge whether the saw blade is held by the 
thumb gage in the proper position to cut along the 
mark, and when the saw moves downwardly for 
the first cut, you may be assured that the cut is 



^ 



-^ 



accurate, or at the right place, and the thumb 
should be kept in its position until two or three 
cuts are made, and the work is then fairly started. 

For Cross-cutting. — For ordinary cross-cutting 
the angle of the saw should be at 45 degrees. For 
ripping, the best results are found at less than 
45 degrees, but you should avoid flattening down 
the angle. An incorrect as well as a correct angle 
are shown in Figs. 21 and 22. 

Forcing a Saw. — Forcing a saw through the 
wood means a crooked kerf. The more nearly the 
saw is held at right angles to a board, the greater 



TO HOLD AND HANDLE TOOLS 33 

is the force which must be applied to it by the 
hand to cause it to bite into the wood ; and, on the 
other hand, if the saw is laid down too far, as 
shown in the incorrect way, it is a very difficult 
matter to follow the working line. Furthermore, it 
is a hard matter to control the saw so that it will 
cut squarely along the board, particularly when 
ripping. The eye must be the only guide in the 
disposition of the saw. Some boys make the saw 
run in one direction, and others cause it to lean 



yi 



z__ 



the opposite way. After you have had some ex- 
perience and know which way you lean, correct 
your habits by disposing the saw in the opposite 
direction. 

The Steoke. — Make a long stroke, using the 
full blade of the saw. Don't acquire the "jerky'' 
style of sawing. If the handle is held loosely, 
and the saw is at the proper angle, the weight of 
the saw, together with the placement of the handle 
on the saw blade, will be found sufficient to make 
the requisite cut at each stroke. 



34 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



You will notice that the handle of every saw is 
mounted nearest the back edge. (See Fig. 23.) 
The reason for so mounting it is, that as the cut- 
ting stroke is downward, the line of thrust is 
above the tooth line, and as this line is at an 




Ttg. ^3. 



Cor; 




Ohin€S€ SaW« 



ICg.S4. 



angle to the line of thrust, the tendency is to cause 
the saw teeth to dig into the wood. 

The Chinese Saw. — This saw is designed to 
saw with an upward cut, and the illustration (Fig. 
24) shows the handle jutting out below the tooth 
line, in order to cause the teeth to dig into the 
material as the handle is drawn upwardly. Eef er- 
ence is made to these features to impress upon 
beginners the value of observation, and to demon- 
strate the reason for making each tool a particu- 
lar way. 



TO HOLD AND HANDLE TOOLS 35 

Things to Avoid. — Do not oscillate the saw as 
you draw it back and forth. This is unnecessary 
work, and shows impatience in the use of the tool. 
There is such an infinite variety of use for the 
different tools that there is no necessity for ren- 
dering the work of any particular tool, or tools, 
burdensome. Each in its proper place, handled 
intelligently, will become a pleasure, as well as 
a source of profit. 




The Plane. — The jack plane and the fore plane 
are handled with both hands, and the smoothing 
plane with one hand, but only when used for 
dressing the ends of boards. For other uses both 
hands are required. 

Angles for Holding Planes. — Before commenc- 
ing to plane a board, always observe the direc- 
tion in which the grain of the wood runs. This 
precaution will save many a piece of material, be- 
cause if the jack plane is set deep it will run into 
the wood and cause a rough surface, which can 



36 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



be cured only by an extra amount of labor in 
planing down. 

Never move the jack plane or the smoothing 
plane over the work so that the body of the tool 
is in a direct line with the movement of the plane. 
It should be held at an angle of about 12 




T-'ig. 



or 15 degrees (see Fig. 25). The fore plane 
should always be held straight with the move- 
ment of the plane, because the length of the fore 
plane body is used as a straightener for the sur- 
face to be finished. 

Eeeors to Be Avoided. — Never draw back the 
plane with the bit resting on the board. This 



TO HOLD AND HANDLE TOOLS 37 

simply wears out the tool, and if there should be 
any grit on the board it will be sure to ruin the 
bit. This applies particularly to the jack plane, 
but is bad practice with the others as well. 

A work bench is a receptacle for all kinds of 
dirt. Provide a special ledge or shelf for the 
planes, and be sure to put each plane there imme- 
diately after using. 

The Gage. — A man, who professed to be a car- 
penter, once told me that he never used a gage 
because he could not make it run straight. A 
few moments' practice convinced him that he never 
knew how to hold it. The illustration shows how 
properly to hold it, and the reason why it should 
so be held follows. 

You will observe (Fig. 26) that the hand grasps 
the stem of the gage behind the cheekpiece, so 
that the thumb is free to press against the side 
of the stem to the front of the cheekpiece. 

Holding the Gage. — The hand serves to keep the 
cheekpiece against the board, while the thumb 
pushes the gage forward. The hand must not, un- 
der any circumstances, be used to move the gage 
along. In fact, it is not necessary for the fingers 
to be clasped around the gage stem, if the fore- 
finger presses tightly against the cheekpiece, since 
the thumb performs all the operation of moving 
it along. Naturally, the hand grasps the tool in 



38 CARPENTEY FOR BOYS 

order to hold it down against the material, and to 
bring it back for a new cut. 

The Drawknife. — It is diflficult for the appren- 
tice to become accustomed to handle this useful 
tool. It is much more serviceable than a hatchet 
for trimming and paring work. In applying it 
to the wood always have the tool at an angle with 
the board, so as to make a slicing cut. This is 
specially desirable in working close to a line, other- 
wise there is a liability of cutting over it. 

This knife requires a firm grasp — firmness of 
hold is more important than strength in using. 
The flat side is used wholly for straight edges, and 
the beveled side for concave surfaces. It is the 
intermediate tool between the hatchet and the 
plane, as it has the characteristics of both those 
tools. It is an ugly, dangerous tool, more to be 
feared when lying around than when in use. Put 
it religiously on a rack which protects the entire 
cutting edge. Keep it ojf the bench. 



CHAPTEE IV 

HOW TO DESIGN ARTICLES 

Fundamentals of Designing. — A great deal 
of the pleasure in making articles consists in 
creative work. This means, not that yon shall 
design some entirely new article, bnt that its gen- 
eral form, or arrangement of parts, shall have 
some new or striking feature. 

A new design in any art does not require a 
change in all its parts. It is sufficient that there 
shall be an improvement, either in some particu- 
lar point, as a matter of utility, or some change 
in an artistic direction. A manufacturer in put- 
ting out a new chair, or a plow, or an automobile, 
adds some striking characteristic. This becomes 
his talking point in selling the article. 

The Commercial Instinct. — It is not enough 
that the boy should learn to make things correctly, 
and as a matter of pastime and pleasure. The 
commercial instinct is, after all, the great incenr 
tive, and should be given due consideration. 

It would be impossible, in a book of this kind, 
to do more than to give the fundamental princi- 
ples necessary in designing, and to direct the mind 

39 



40 CAEPENTRY FOE BOYS 

solely to essentials, leaving tlie individual to build 
up for himself. 

First Eequirements for Designing. — First, 
then, let us see what is necessary to do when you 
intend to set about making an article. Suppose we 
fix our minds upon a table as the article selected. 
Three things are necessary to know: First, the 
use to which it is to be put; second, the dimen- 
sions ; and, third, the material required. 

Assuming it to be the ordinary table, and the 
dimensions fixed, we may conclude to use soft 
pine, birch or poplar, because of ease in working. 
There are no regulation dimensions for tables, ex- 
cept as to height, which is generally uniform, and 
usually 30 inches. As to the length and width, 
you will be governed by the place where it is to be 
used. 

If the table top is to have dimensions, say, of 
36"x48", you may lay out the framework six 
inches less each way, thus giving you a top over- 
hang of three inches, which is the usual prac- 
tice. 

Conventional Styles. — Now, if you wish to de- 
part from the conventional style of making a table 
you may make variations in the design. For in- 
stance, the Chippendale style means slender legs 
and thin top. It involves some fanciful designs 
in the curved outlines of the top, and in the crook 



HOW TO DESIGN ARTICLES 41 

of the legs. Or if, on tlie other hand, the Mission 
type is preferred, the overhang of the top is very 
narrow; the legs are straight and heavy, and of 
even size from top to bottom; and the table top 
is thick and nearly as broad as it is long. Such 
furniture has the appearance of massiveness ; it is 
easily made and most serviceable. 

Mission Style. — The Mission style of architec- 
ture also lends itself to the making of chairs and 
other articles of furniture. A chair is, probably, 
the most difficult piece of household furniture to 
make, because strength is required. In this type 
soft wood may be used, as the large legs and back 
pieces are easily provided with mortises and 
tenons, affording great rigidity when completed. 
In designing, therefore, you may see how the 
material itself becomes an important factor. 

Cabinets. — In the making of cabinets, side- 
boards, dressers and like articles, the ingenious 
boy will find a wonderful field for designing abil- 
ity, because in these articles fancy alone dictates 
the sizes and the dimensions of the parts. Not 
so with chairs and tables. The imagination plays 
an important part even in the making of drawers, 
to say nothing of placing them with an eye to 
convenience and artistic effect. 

Habmony of Parts. — But one thing should be 
observed in the making of furniture, namely, har- 



42 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

mony between the parts. For instance, a table 
with thin legs and a thick top gives the appear- 
ance of a top-heavy structure; or the wrong use 
of two different styles is bad from an artistic 
standpoint; moreover, it is the height of refined 
education if, in the use of contrasting woods, they 
are properly blended to form a harmonious whole. 
Hakmoistizing Wood. — Imagine a chiffonier with 
the base of dark wood, like walnut, and the top of 
pine or maple, or a like light-colored wood. On 
the other hand, both walnut and maple, for in- 
stance, may be used in the same article, if they are 
interspersed throughout the entire article. The 
body may be made of dark wood and trimmed 
throughout with a light wood to produce a fine 
effect. 



CHAPTER V 

HOW WOEK IS LAID OUT 

CoNCKETE Examples of Wobk. — A concrete ex- 
ample of doing any work is more valuable than an 
abstract statement. For this purpose I shall di- 
rect the building of a common table with a drawer 
in it and show how the work is done in detail. 

For convenience let us adopt the Mission style, 
with a top 36" x 42" and the height 30". The legs 



q 



K X ^ 



t^ -A ^ 



should be 2" x 2" and the top 1", dressed. The 
material should be of hard wood with natural 
finish, or, what is better still, a soft wood, Jike 
birch, which may be stained a dark brown, as the 
Mission style is more effective in dark than in 
light woods. 

Framewobk. — As we now know the sizes, the 
first thing is to build the framework. The legs 
should be dressed square and smoothed down with 
the fore plane to make them perfectly straight. 
Now, lay out two mortises at the upper end of each 

43 



44 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



leg. Follow the illustrations to see how this is 
done. 

Laying Out the Legs. — Fig. 27 shows a leg with 
square cross marks (A) at each end. These marks 
indicate the finished length of the leg. You will 
also see crosses on two sides. These indicate what 
is called the "work sides." The work sides are 
selected because they are the finest surfaces on 
the leg. 



^ 



J^i^.&8. 







q 



K 



^ 



:2^6^,M 



X 



The Length or the Moktises. — Then take a 
small try square (Fig. 28) and add two cross lines 
(B, C) on each of the inner surfaces, the second 
line (B) one-half inch from the finish line (A), 
and the other line (C) seven inches down from 
the line (A). The side facing boards, hereafter 
described, are seven inches wide. 

"When this has been done for all the legs, pre- 
pare your gage (Fig. 29) to make the mortise 
scribe, and, for convenience in illustrating, the leg 



HOW WOEK IS LAID OUT 



45 



is reversed. 



the tenons are intended to be i" 



If the facing boards are 1" thick, and 

thick, the first 
scribe line (E) should be i" from the work side, 
because the shoulder on the facing board pro- 
jects out i", and the outer surface of the facing 
board should not be flush with the outer surface 
of the leg. The second gage line (F) should be 1" 
from the work side. 




:7^.5a 



The Mortises. — ^^Tien the mortises have been 
made they will appear as shown in the enlarged 
cross section of the leg (Fig. 30), the total depth 
of each mortise being 1|". The depth of this mor- 
tise determines for us the length of the tenons on 
the facing boards. 

The Facing Boards. — These boards are each 1 
inch thick and 7 inches wide. As the top of the 
table is 42 inches long, and we must provide an 
overhang, say of 2 inches, we will first take off 
4 inches for the overhang and 4 inches for the 



46 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

legs, so that the length of two of the facing boards, 
from shoulder to shoulder, must be 34 inches ; and 
the other two facing boards 28 inches. Then, as 
we must add 1^ inches for each tenon, two of the 
boards will be 37 inches long and two of them 31 
inches long. 





^^ — 




^s. 




> 


-_^ 


> 


jB- 






,^^y^ 


:7^^.^/ 




1 




y 


J3- 





The illustration (Fig. 31) shows a board marked 
with the cross lines (B) at each end for the end 
of the tenons, or the extreme ends of the boards. 

The Tenok^s. — Do not neglect first to select the 
work side and the working edge of the board. 
The outer surface and the upper edges are the 
sides to work from. The cheekpiece (A) of the 
gage must always rest against the working side. 



HOW VVOEK IS LAID OUT 



47 



The cross marks (B, C) should be made with the 
point of a sharp knife, and before the small back 
saw is used on the cross-cuts the lines (B), which 
indicate the shoulders, should be scored with a 




>, 



J^iffM 



\ 




-?^.^. 



:i^^3Si. 



sharp knife, as shown in Fig. 33. This furnishes 
a guide for the saw, and makes a neat finish for 
the shoulder. 

Tools Used. — The back saw is used for cutting 
the tenon, and the end of the board appears as 



48 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



shown in the enlarged Fig. 34. Two things are 
now necessary to complete the tenons. On the np- 
per or work edge of each board nse the gage to 
mark off a half -inch slice, and then cnt away the 
flat side of the tenon at the end, on its inner sur- 
face, so it will appear as shown in Fig. 35. 




2^t^.3€. 




JTt^.d?. 



Chamfered Tenons. — The object of these cham- 
fered or beveled tenons is to permit the ends to 
approach each other closely within the mortise, 
as shown in the assembled parts (Fig. 36). 

The Frame Assembled. — The frame is now 
ready to assemble, but before doing so a drawer 
opening and supports should be made. The ends 



HOW WOEK IS LAID OUT 49 

of the supports may be mortised into the side 
pieces or secured by means of gains. 

Mortises and tenons are better. 

The Dkawer Supports. — Take one of the side- 
facing boards (Fig. 37) and cut a rectangular 
opening in it. This opening should be 4 inches 
wide and 18 inches long, so placed that there is 1 




c jry^. sa 



inch of stock at the upper margin and 2 inches of 
stock at the lower margin of the board. At each 
lower corner make a mortise (A), so that one side 
of the mortise is on a line with the margin of the 
opening, and so that it extends a half inch past the 
vertical margin of the opening. 

You can easily cut a gaiu (B) in a strip, or, as 
in Fig. 38, you may use two strips, one (C) an 
inch wide and a half inch thick, and on this nail 
a strip (D) along one margin. This forms the 
guide and rest for the drawer. 

At the upper margin of the opening is a rebate 
or gain (E) at each corner, extending down to 
the top line of the drawer opening, into which are 
fitted the ends of the upper cross guides. 



50 



CARPENTEY FOR BOYS 



The Table Frame. — ^When the entire table 
frame is assembled it will have the appearance 
shown in Fig. 39, and it is now ready for the top. 

The Top. — The top should be made of three 
boards, either tongued and grooved, or doweled 
and glued together. In order to give a massive 




appearance, and also to prevent the end grain of 
the boards from being exposed, beveled strips 
may be used to encase the edges. These marginal 
cleats are | inch thick and 2 inches wide, and 
joined by beveled ends at the comers, as shown in 

Fig. 40. 

The Drawer.— The drawer (Fig. 41) shown in 
cross section, has its front (A) provided with an 
overlapping flange (B). 



HOW WOEK IS LAID OUT 



51 



It is not our object in this chapter to show 
how each particular article is made, but simply 
to point out the underlying principles, and to il- 
lustrate how the fastening elements, the tenons 
and mortises, are formed, so that the boy will 
know the proper steps in their natural order. 




JTlff^^o. 



How Any Structure Is Built Up. — ^It should 
be observed that each structure, however small, is 
usually built from the base up. Just the same 
as the more pretentious buildings are erected: 
First, the sill, then the floor supports, then the 
posts and top plates, with their connecting girders, 
and, finally, the roof. 

The chapter on House Building will give more 
detailed illustrations of large structures, and how 
they are framed and braced. At this point we are 
more concerned in knowing how to proceed in or- 
der to lay out the simple structural details, and if 
one subject of this kind is fully mastered the com- 



52 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

plicated character of the article will not be diffi- 
cult to master. 

OssEEVATioisrs About A Box. — As simple a little 
article as a box frequently becomes a burden to a 
beginner. Try it. Simply keep in mind one thing ; 
each box has six sides. Now, suppose you want a 
box with six equal sides — that is, a cubical form — 
it is necessary to make only three pairs of sides ; 



WffTfUffffUfMfieirfiiLU 




:r^.^/. 



two for the ends, two for the sides and two for 
the top and bottom. Each set has dimensions dif- 
ferent from the other sets. Both pieces of the 
set, representing the ends, are square; the side 
pieces are of the same width as the end pieces, 
and slightly longer; and the top and bottom are 
longer and wider than the end pieces. 

A box equal in all its dimensions may be made 
out of six boards, properly cut. Make an attempt 
in order to see if you can get the right dimensions. 

Joints. — For joining together boards at right 
angles to each other, such as box comers, drawers 
and like articles, tenons and mortises should never 
be resorted to. In order to make fine work the 
joints should be made by means of dovetails, rab- 



HOW WOEK IS LAID OUT 



53 



bets or rebates, or by beveling or mitering the 
ends. 

BsvELiiirG AND MiTERiNG. — There is a difference 
in the terms ^^beveling" and "mitering," as used 
in the art. In Fig\ 42 the joint A is beveledy 
and in Fig. 43 the joint B is miteredy the dif- 
ference being that a bevel is applied to an angle 




jri^s^ 




jTig.'^s, 



joint like a box corner, while a miter has refer- 
ence to a joint such as is illustrated in Fig. 43, 
such as the comer of a picture frame. 

Proper Terms. — It is the application of the cor- 
rect terms to things that lays the foundation for 
accurate thinking and proper expressions in de- 
scribing work. A wise man once said that the 
basis of true science consists in correct defini- 
tions. 

Picture Frames. — In picture frames the mi- 
tered comers may have a saw kerf (C) cut across 
the corners, as shown in Fig. 44, and a thin blade 



54 



CARPENTRY FOR BOYS 



of hard wood driven in, the whole being glued 
together. 

Dovetail Joints. — It is in the laying out of the 
more complicated dovetail joints that the highest 
skill is required, because exactness is of more 
importance in this work than in any other article 
in joinery. In order to do this work accurately 




JF^.^^. 



follow out the examples given, and you will soon 
be able to make a beautiful dovetail corner, and do 
it quickly. 

Peepaetng a Box Joint. — In order to match a 
box joint for the inner end of a table drawer, the 
first step is to select two work sides. One work 
side will be the edge of the board, and the other 
the side surface of the board, and on those sur- 
faces we will put crosses, as heretofore suggested. 

First Steps. — Now lap together the inner sur- 
faces of these boards (Y, Z), so the ends are to- 
ward you, as shown in Fig. 45. Then, after meas- 



HOW WOKK IS LAID OUT 



55 



uring the thickness of the boards to be joined 
(the thinnest, if they are of different thicknesses), 
set your compasses, or dividers, for I inch, provid- 




jr^z^.46^ 




:^ig.^6. 




T^tg.^r 



ing the boards are \ inch thick, and, commencing 
at the work edge of the board, step off and point, 
as at A, the whole width of the board, and with 
a square make the two cross marks (B), using 



56 



CARPENTRY FOR BOYS 



the two first compass points (A), then skipping 
one, using the next two, and so on. 

When this is done, tnm np the board Z (Fig. 46), 
so that it is at right angles to the board Y, and 




:z^^.-^<5. 




:rYg,-f9, 




ZT'tg.^O. 



so the onter surface of the board Z is flush with 
the end of the board X, and with a sharp knife 
point extend the lines B along with the grain 
of the wood on board Z, up to the cross mark C. 
This cross mark should have been previously made 



HOW WOEK IS LAID OUT 57 

and is located as far from the end of the board Z 
as the thickness of the board Y. 

We now have the marks for the outer surface 
of the board Z, and the end marks of board Y. 
For the purpose of getting the angles of the end 
of the board Z and the outer side of board Y, a 
cross line (D, Fig. 47) is drawn across the board 
X near the end, this line being as far from the 
end as the thickness of the board Z, and a vertical 
line (E) is drawn midway between the two first 
cross marks (A). 

Now, with your compass, which, in the meantime, 
has not been changed, make a mark (F), and draw 
down the line (G), which will give you the working 
angle at which you may set the bevel gage. Then 
draw down an angle from each alternate cross line 
(A), and turn the bevel and draw down the lines 
(H). These lines should all be produced on the 
opposite side of the board, so as to assure accu- 
racy, and to this end the edges of the board also 
should be scribed. 

Cutting Out the Spaces. — ^In cutting out the 
intervening spaces, which should be done with a 
sharp chisel, care should be observed not to cut 
over the shoulder lines. To prevent mistakes you 
should put some distinctive mark on each part to 
be cut away. In this instance E, H show the parts 



58 CARPENTRY FOR BOYS 

to be removed, and in Fig. 48 two of the cutaway- 
portions are indicated. 

When the end of the board Z is turned up (Fig. 
49), it has merely the longitudinal parallel lines 
B. The bevel square may now be used in the 
same manner as on the side of the board Y, and 
the fitting angles will then be accurately true. 

This is shown in Fig. 50, in which, also, two of 
the cutaway parts are removed. 

Tools Used in Laying Out Tenons and Mor- 
tises. — A sharp-pointed knife must always be used 
for making all marks. Never employ an awl for 
this work, as the fiber of the wood will be torn up 
by it. A small try square should always be used 
(not the large iron square), and this with a sharp- 
pointed compass and bevel square will enable you 
to turn out a satisfactory piece of work. 

The foregoing examples, carefully studied, will 
enable you to gather the principles involved in lay- 
ing off any work. If you can once make a pre- 
sentable box joint, so that all the dovetails will 
accurately fit together, you will have accomplished 
one of the most difficult phases of the work, and it 
is an exercise which will amply repay you, be- 
cause you will learn to appreciate what accuracy 
means. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE USES OF THE COMPASS AND THE SQUARE 

The Square. — The square is, probably, the old- 
est of all tools, and that, together with the com- 
pass, or dividers, with whicL the square is always 
associated, has constituted the craftsman's em- 
blem from the earliest historical times. So far as 
we now know, the plain flat form, which has at 
least one right angle and two or more straight 
edges, was the only form of square used by the 
workman. But modem uses, and the development 
of joinery and cabinet making, as well as the more 
advanced forms of machinery practice, necessi- 
tated new structural forms in the square, so that 
the bevel square, in which there is an adjustable 
blade set in a handle, was found necessary. 

The Try Square. — In the use of the ordinary 
large metal square it is necessary to lay the short 
limb of the square on the face of the work, and 
the long limb must, therefore, rest against the 
work side or edge of the timber, so that the scrib- 
ing edge of the short limb does not rest flat 
against the work. As such a tool is defective in 
work requiring accuracy, it brought into existence 

59 



60 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

what is called the try square, which has a rectan- 
gular handle, usually of wood, into which is fitted 
at one end a metal blade, which is at right angles 
to the edge of the handle. The handle, therefore, 
always serves as a guide for the blade in scribing 
work, because it lies flat down on the work. 

The T-Squake is another modification of the 
try square, its principal use being for draughting 
purposes. 

The Compass. — The compass is one of the origi- 
nal carpenter's tools. The difference between 
compass and dividers is that compasses have ad- 
justable pen or pencil points, whereas dividers are 
without adjustable points. Modern work has 
brought refinements in the character of the com- 
pass and dividers, so that we now have the bow- 
compass, which is, usually, a small tool, one leg 
of which carries a pen or pencil point, the two 
legs being secured together, usually, by a spring 
bow, or by a hinged joint with a spring attach- 
ment. 

Peopoktiokal Divideks. — A useful tool is called 
the proportional dividers, the legs of which are 
hinged together intermediate the ends, so that the 
pivotal joint is adjustable. By means of this tool 
the scale of work may be changed, although its 
widest field of usefulness is work laid off on a 



COMPASS AND THE SQUAEE 61 

scale which you intend to reduce or enlarge pro- 
portionally. 

Determixing Angles. — ^Now, in order to lay 
out work the boy should know quickly and accu- 
rately how to determine various angles used or 
required in his work. The quickest way in which 
to learn this is to become familiar with the degree 
in its various relations. 




JTcff.Sf. 



Definition of Degree. — A degree is not a meas- 
ure, as we would designate a foot or a pound to 
determine distance or quantity. It is used to 
denote a division, space, interval or position. To 
illustrate, look at the circle. Fig. 51. The four car- 
dinal points are formed by the cross lines (A, B), 
and in each one of the quadrants thus formed the 
circle is divided into 90 degrees. Look at the 
radial lines (C, D), and you will find that the dis- 
tance between these lines is different along the 



62 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

curved line (E) tlian along the curved line (F). 
The degree is, therefore, to indicate only the space, 
division or interval in the circle. 

The Most Impoetant Angle. — Most important 
for one to know at a glance is that of 45 degrees, 
because the one can the more readily calculate the 
other degrees, approximately, by having 45 de- 
grees once fixed in the mind, and impressed on the 
visual image. With a square and a compass it 
is a comparatively easy matter accurately to step 
off 45 degrees, as it is the line C, midway between 
A and B, and the other degrees may be calcu- 
lated from the line C and the cardinal lines A or B. 

Degkees Without a Compass. — But in the ab- 
sence of a compass and when you do not wish to 
step off a circle, you will in such case lay down 
the square, and mark off at the outer margin of 
the limbs two equal dimensions. Suppose we 
take 2 inches on each limb of the square. The 
angle thus formed by the angle square blade is 45 
degrees. To find 30 degrees allow the blade of the 
angle square to run from 2 inches on one limb to 
3J inches on the other limb, and it will be found 
that for 15 degrees the blade runs from 2 inches on 
one limb to 7^ inches on the other limb. It would 
be well to fix firmly these three points, at least, in 
your mind, as they will be of the utmost value to 
you. It is a comparatively easy matter now to 



COMPASS AND THE SQUAEE 63 

find 10 degrees or 25 degrees, or any intermediate 
line. 

What Degrees Are Calculated From. — The 
question that now arises is what line one may nse 
from which to calculate degrees, or at what point 



I , I » Ill III i w r i> . 




T^iff.QS. y 



i- 





j^€^. 6d. 



-^ v^C 



^fH — v—^ 



jr€^. S^. 



in the circle zero is placed. Degrees may be cal- 
culated either from the horizontal or from the 
vertical line. Examine Fig. 53. The working 
margin indicated by the cross mark is your base 
line, and in specifybig an angle you calculate 
it from the work edge. Thus, the line A indicates 
an angle of 30 degrees. The dotted line is 45 
degrees. 



64 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

The Dividees. — The dividers are used not only 
for scribing circles, but also for stepping and di- 
viding spaces equally. There is a knack in the 
use of the dividers, where accuracy is wanted, and 
where the surface is of wood. Unless the utmost 
care is observed, the spaces will be unequal, for 
the reason that the point of the dividers will sink 
more deeply into the wood at some places than 
at others, due to the uneven texture of the wood 
grain. It will be better to make a line lengthwise, 
and a cross line (A) for starting (see Fig. 54). 
You may then insert one point of the dividers at 
the initial mark (B), and describe a small arc (C). 
Then move the dividers over to the intersection of 
the arc (C) on the line, and make the next mark, 
and so on. 

Some useful hints along this same line will be 
found under the chapter on Drawing, which should 
be carefully studied. 



CHAPTEE VII 

HOW THE DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL PARTS ARE DESIG- 
NATED 

The Eight Name for Everything. — Always 
make it a point to apply the right term to each 
article or portion of a structure. Your explana- 
tion, to those who do know the proper technical 
terms, will render much easier a thorough under- 
standing; and to those who do not know, your lan- 
guage will be in the nature of an education. 

Proper Designations. — Every part in mechan- 
ism, every point, curve and angle has its peculiar 
designation. A knowledge of terms is an indica 
tion of thoroughness in education, and, as hereto- 
fore stated, becomes really the basis of art, as well 
as of the sciences. When you wish to impart in- 
formation to another you must do it in terms un- 
derstood by both. 

Furthermore, and for this very reason, you 
should study to find out how to explain or to de- 
fine the terms. You may have a mental picture 
of the structure in your mind, but when asked to 
explain it you are lost. 

Learning Mechanical Forms. — Suppose, for 
example, we take the words segment and sector. 

65 



66 CAEPENTRY FOR BOYS 

Without a thorough understanding in your own 
mind you are likely to confuse tliese terms by 
taking one for the other. But let us assume you 
are to be called upon to explain a sector to some 
one who has no idea of terms and their definitions. 
How would you describe it? While it is true it is 
wedge-shaped, you will see by examining the draw- 
ing that it is not like a wedge. The sector has two 
sides running from a point like a wedge, but the 
large end of the sector is curved. 

If you were called upon to define a segment you 
might say it had one straight line and one curve, 
but this would not define it very lucidly. There- 
fore, in going over the designations given, not 
only fix in your mind the particular form, but try 
to remember some particular manner in which 
you can clearly express the form, the shape or the 
relation of the parts. 

For your guidance, therefore, I have given, as 
far as possible, simple figures to aid you in becom- 
ing acquainted with structures and their desig- 
nations, without repeating the more simple forms 
which I have used in the preceding chapters. 

55. Arcade. — A series of arches with the col- 
umns or piers which support them, the spandrels 
above, and other parts. 



STEUCTUEAL PAETS 



67 



56. Arch. — A curved member made up, usually, 
of separate wedge-shaped solids, A. K, Key- 
stone ; S, Springers ; C, Chord, or span. 

57. Buttress, — A projecting mass of masonry. 
A, used for resisting the thrust of an arch, or 
for ornamentation; B, a flying buttress. 

58. Chamfer, — The surface A formed by cutting 
away the arris or angle formed by two faces, B, 
C, of material. 

59. Cotter or Cotter Pin. — A pin. A, either flat, 
square or round, driven through a projecting 
tongue to hold it in position. 

60. Crenelated. — A form of molding indented 
or notched, either regularly or irregularly. 

61. Crosses. — 1. Latin cross, in the Church of 
Rome carried before Bishops. 2. Double cross, 
carried before Cardinals and Bishops. 3. Triple 
or Papal cross. 4. St. Andrew's and St. Peter's 
cross. 5. Maltese cross. 6. St. Anthony or 
Egyptian cross. 7. Cross of Jerusalem. 8. A 
cross patt^ or f erme ( head or first ) . 9. A cross 
patonce (that is, growing larger at the ends). 
10. Greek cross. 

62. Curh Roof. — A roof having a double slope, 
or composed on each side of two parts which 
have unequal inclinations ; a gambrel roof. 

63. Cupola. — So called on account of its re- 
semblance to a cup. A roof having a rounded 
form. When on a large scale it is called a dome. 

Crown Post. — See King Post. 

64. Console. — A bracket with a projection not 
more than half its height. 

65. Corbels. — A mass of brackets to support a 
shelf or structure. Largely employed in Gothic 
architecture. 

66. Dormer. — A window pierced in a roof and 
so set as to be vertical, while the roof slopes 
away from it. Also called a Gahlet. 

67. Dowel. A pin or stud in one block, or 
body, designed to engage with holes in another 
body to hold them together in alignment. 

68. Drip. — That part of a cornice or sill course 
A, or other horizontal member which projects 
beyond the rest, so as to divert water. 




Q f=\ . 55 







69 



^s,„ 





\jKlL 



68 



CARPENTRY FOR BOYS 




67 



fid 

-r 



68 







7/ 




^gHEEEE 



"T" ^ 7S 




m 



75 



hFEfi 



76 



m 



77 





69. Detents. — Recesses to lock or to serve as 
a stop or holding place. 

70. Extrados. — The exterior curve of an arch, 
especially the upper curved face A. B is the 
Intrados or Soffit, 

71. Engrailed. — Indented with small concave 
curves, as the edge of a bordure, bend, or the like. 

72. Facet. — The narrow plain surface, as A, 
between the fluting of a column. 

73. Fret J Fretwork, — Ornamental work consist- 
ing of small fillets, or slats, intersecting each 
other or bent at right angles. Openwork in re- 
lief, when elaborated and minute in all its parts. 
Hence any minute play of light and shade. A, 
Japanese fretwork. B, Green fret. 

74. Frontal, also called Pediment. — ^The tri- 
angular space. A, above a door or window. 

75. Frustums. — ^That part of a solid next the 
base, formed by cutting off the top; or the part 
of any solid, as of a cone, pyramid, etc., between 
two planes, which may either be parallel or in- 
clined to each other. 

76. Fylfat, — A rebated cross used as a secret 
emblem and worn as an ornament. It is also 
called Gam^madium, and more commonly known 
as Swastika. 

77. Gamhrel Roof. — A curb roof having the 
same section in all its parts, with a lower, steeper 
and longer part. See Curb Roof and distinguish 
difference. 

78. Gargoyle. — ^A spout projecting from the 
roof gutter of a building, often carved gro- 
tesquely. 

79. Gudgeon. — A wooden shaft, A, with a 
socket, B, into which is fitted a casting, C. The 
casting has a gudgeon, D. 

80. Guilloche. — An ornament in the form of 
two or more bands or strings twisted together or 
over or through each other. 

81. Half Timtered. — Constructed of a timber 
frame, having the spaces filled in with masonry. 

82. Hammer Beam. — A member of one descrip- 
tion of roof truss, called hammer-beam truss, 
which is so framed as not to have a tie beam 



STEUCTUEAL PAETS 



69 



at the top of the wall. A is the hammer beam, 
and C the pendant post. 

83. Haunches, — The parts A, A, on each side 
of the crown of an arch. Each haunch is from 
one-half to two-thirds of the half arch. 

84. Header. — A piece of timber, A, fitted be- 
tween two trimmers, B, B, to hold the ends of 
the tail beams, C, C. 

85. Hip Roof, — ^The external angle formed by 
the meeting of two sloping sides or skirts of 
a roof which have their wall plates running in 
different directions. 

86. Hood Molding, — A projecting molding over 
the head of an arch, as at A, forming the outer- 
most member of the archivolt. 

87. Inclave. — The border, or borders, having a 
series of dovetails. One variation of molding or 
ornamentation. 

88. Interlacing Arch, — ^Arches, usually circu- 
lar, so constructed that their archivolts. A, in- 
tersect and seem to be interlaced. 

89. Invected, — Having a border or outline com- 
posed of semicircles or arches, with the con- 
vexity outward. The opposite of engrailed. 

90. Inverted ArcK — An arch placed with the 
crown downward; used in foundation work.' 

91. Keystone. — ^The central or topmost stone, 
A, of an arch, sometimes decorated with a carv- 
ing. 

92. King Post. — A member, A, of a common 
form of truss for roofs. It is strictly a tie in- 
tended to prevent the sagging of the tie beam, B, 
in the middle. If there are struts, C, supporting 
the rafters, D, they extend down to the foot of 
the King Post, 

93. Lahel. — The name given to the projecting 
molding, A, around the top of the door opening. 
A form of medieval architecture. 

94. Louver. — The sloping boards, A, set to shed 
rain water outward in an opening of a frame, as 
in belfry windows. 





[^ 



f^ at 




as 






65 




86 



hjsrunszststJ 



67 







69 




I ^ I ^ I 90 



^9^ 



9/ 




70 



CAEPENTKY FOE BOYS 





9^ 




95 





97 





99 



WO 





/02 




103 




95. Lintel. — A horizontal member. A spanning 
or opening of a frame, and designed to carry the 
wall above it. 

96. Lug. — A projecting piece, as A, to which 
anything is attached, or against which another 
part3 like B, is held. 

97. M-Roof. — A kind of roof formed by the 
junction of two common roofs with a valley be- 
tween them, so the section resembles the letter 
M. 

98. Mansard Roof. — ^A hipped curb roof, that 
is, a roof having on all sides two slopes, the 
lower one. A, being steeper than the upper 
portion or deck. 

99. ISIewel Post. — The upright post at the foot 
of a stairway, to which the railing is attached. 

100. Parquetry. — A species of joinery or cabi- 
net work, consisting of an inlay of geometric or 
other patterns, generally of different colored 
woods, used particularly for floors. 

101. Peen, also Pein. — The round, rowwc^-edged 
or hemispherical end, as at A, of a hammer. 

102. Pendant. — ^A hanging ornament on roofs^ 
ceilings, etc., and much used in the later styles 
of Gothic architecture where it is of stone. Imi- 
tated largely in wood and plaster work. 

103. Pentastyle. — A pillar. A portico having 
^YQ pillars. A, is called the Pentastyle in tem- 
ples of classical construction. 

104. Pedestal. — An upright architectural mem- 
ber, A, right-angled in plan, constructionally a 
pier, but resemblng a column, having a capital, 
shaft and base to agree with the columns in the 
structure. 

105. Pintle. — An upright pivot pin, or the pin 
of a hinge; A represents the pintle of a rudder, 

106. Portico. — A colonnade or covered struc- 
ture, especially in classical style, of architecture, 
and usually at the entrance of a building. 

107. Plate. — A horizontal timber, A, used as 
a top or header for supporting timbers, roofs and 
the like. 



STEUCTUEAL PAETS 



71 



108. Queen Post, — One of two suspending posts 
in a roof truss, or other framed truss of simple 
form. Compare with King Post, A, B, tie beam ; 
C, C, queen posts; D, straining piece; E, prin- 
cipal rafter; F, rafter. 

109. Quirk Molding. — A small channel, deeply 
recessed, in proportion to its width, used to in- 
sulate and give relief to a convex rounded mold- 
ing. An excellent corner post for furniture. 

110. Re-entering. — The figure shows an irregu- 
lar polygon (that is, many-sided figure) and is 
a re-entering polygon. The recess A is a re- 
entering angle. 

111. Rafter. — Originally any rough and heavy 
piece of timber, but in modern carpentry used 
to designate the main roof support, as at A. 
See Queen Post, 

112. Scarfing. — Cutting timber at an angle 
along its length, as the line A. Scarfing joints 
are variously made. The overlapping joints may 
be straight or recessed and provided with a key 
block B. When fitted together they are securely 
held by plates and bolts. 

113. Scotia Molding. — ^A sunken molding in 
the base of a pillar, so called from the dark 
shadow which it casts. 

114. Sill. — In carpentry the base piece, or 
pieces. A, on which the posts of a structure are 
set. 

115. Skew-Back. — The course of masonry, such 
as a stone. A, with an inclined face, which forms 
the abutment for the voussoirs, B, or wedge- 
shaped stones comprising the arch. 

116. Spandrel. — The irregular, triangular 
space, A, between the curve of an arch and the 
enclosing right angle. 

117. Strut. — In general, any piece of a frame, 
such as a timber A, or a brace B, whch resists 
pressure or thrust in the direction of its length. 

118. Stud, Studding. — ^The vertical timber or 
scantling, A, which is one of the small uprights 
of a building to which the boarding or plaster- 
ing lath are nailed. 





-ji 



/07 



^o 



r/o 





7 



m 





m 



:^ 



^ 



m 



72 



CARPENTRY FOR BOYS 






//a 



ji 



-B 

-2> ff9 




120 




121 



■VB 



oJ 



/B2 



^^m 



119. ^tile, — ^The main uprights of a door, as 
A, A; B, B, B, rails; C, C, mullions; D, D, pan- 
els. 

Tie Beam, — See Queen Post, 

120. Trammel. — ^A very useful tool for drawing 
ellipses. It comprises a cross, A, with grooves 
and a bar, B, with pins, G, attached to sliding 
blocks in the grooves, and a pen or stylus, D, 
at the projecting end of the bar to scribe the 
ellipse. 

121. Turret. — ^A little tower, frequently only 
an ornamental structure at one of the angles of 
a larger structure. 

122. Transom.- — A horizontal cross-bar. A, 
above a door or window or between a door and 
a window above it. Transom is the horizontal 
member, and if there is a vertical, like the dotted 
line B, it is called a Mullion. See Stile, 

123. Valley Roof. — ^A place of meeting of two 
slopes of a roof which have their sides running 
in different directions and formed on the plan 
of a re-entrant angle. 



CHAPTEE VIII 

DKAWING AND ITS UTILITY 

A KNOWLEDGE of drawing, at least so far as the 
fundamentals are concerned, is of great service 
to the beginner. All work, after being conceived 
in the brain, should be transferred to paper. A 
habit of this kind becomes a pleasure, and, if car- 
ried out persistently, will prove a source of profit. 
The boy with a bow pen can easily draw circles, 
and with a drawing or ruling pen he can make 
straight lines. 

Eepresenting Objects. — But let him try to rep- 
resent some object, and the pens become useless. 
There is a vast difference in the use of drawing 
tools and free-hand drawing. "While the boy who 
is able to execute free-hand sketches may become 
the better artist, still that art would not be of much 
service to him as a carpenter. First, because the 
use of tools gives precision, and this is necessary 
to the builder; and, second, because the artist 
deals wholly with perspectives, whereas the build- 
er must execute from plane surfaces or eleva- 
tions. 

Forming Lines and Shadows. — It is not my in- 
tention to furnish a complete treatise on this sub- 
7 73 



74 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

ject, but to do two things, one of wHcli will be to 
show, among other features, how simple lines form 
objects; how shading becomes an effective aid; 
how proportions are formed ; and, second, how to 
make irregular forms, and how they may readily 
be executed so that the boy may be able to grasp 
the ideas for all shapes and structural devices. 



jrig./^^. 





Analysis of Line Shading. — In the demonstra- 
tion of this work I shall give an analysis of the 
simple lines formed, showing the terms used to 
designate the lines, curves, and formations, so that 
when any work is laid out the beginner will be 
able, with this glossary before him, to describe 
architecturally, as well as mathematically, the an- 
gles and curves with which he is working. 

How TO Charactekize Surface. — Suppose we 
commence simply with straight lines. How shall 



DRAWING AND ITS UTILITY 



75 



we determine the character of the surface of the 
material between the two straight lines shown in 
Fig. 125? Is it flat, rounded, or concaved? Let us 
see how we may treat the surface by simple lines 
so as to indicate the configuration. 





jrt^,/&B^ 




l^i^, /SO. 



l^tgJ^I 



Concave Surfaces. — In Fig. 126 the shading 
lines commence at the upper margin, and are 
heaviest there, the lines gradually growing thinner 
and farther apart. 

Convex Surfaces. — In Fig. 127 the shading is 
very light along the upper margin, and heavy at 
the lower margin. The first shaded figure, there- 
fore, represents a concaved surface, and the sec- 



76 



CARPENTEY FOE BOYS 



end figure a convex surface. But why? Simply 
for the reason that in drawings, as well as in na- 
ture, light is projected downwardly, hence when a 
beam of light moves past the margin of an object, 
the contrast at the upper part, where the light is 
most intense, is strongest. 

The shading of the S-shaped surface (Fig. 128) 
is a compound of Figs. 126 and 127. 



:Z^lffJ32. 



Shadows Fkom a Solid Body. — ^We can under- 
stand this better by examining Fig. 129, which 
shows a vertical board, and a beam of light (A) 
passing downwardly beyond the upper margin of 
the board. Under these conditions the upper mar- 
gin of the board appears darker to the vision, by 
contrast, than the lower part. It should also be 
understood that, in general, the nearer the object 
the lighter it is, so that as the upper edge of the 
board is farthest from the eye the heavy shading 
there will at least give the appearance of dis- 
tance to that edge. 



DEAWING AND ITS UTILITY 



77 



But suppose that instead of having the surface 
of the board flat, it should be concaved, as in Fig. 
130, it is obvious that the hollow, or the concaved, 
portion of the board must intensify the shadows 
or the darkness at the upper edge. This explains 
why the heavy shading in Fig. 126 is at that upper 
margin. 

Flat Effects. — If the board is flat it may be 
shaded, as shown in Fig, 131, in which the lines 























J''T^: 


raa. 




jTig./^^. 



are all of the same thickness, and are spaced far- 
ther and farther apart at regularly increasing in- 
tervals. 

The DiKECTioisr of Light. — Now, in drawing, we 
must observe another thing. Not only does the 
light always come from above, but it comes also 
from the left side. I show in Fig. 132 two squares, 
one within the other. All the lines are of the same 
thickness. Can you determine by means of such a 
drawing what the inner square represents? Is it 
a block, or raised surface, or is it a depression? 



78 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



Eaised Surfaces.^ — Fig. 133 shows it in the form 
of a block, simply by thickening the lower and the 
right-hand lines. 

Depressed Surfaces. — ^If , by chance, you should 
make the upper and the left-hand lines heavy, as 
in Fig. 134, it would, undoubtedly, appear de- 
pressed, and would need no further explanation. 

Full Shadii^g. — But, in order to furnish an ad- 
ditional example of the effect of shading, suppose 




jTi^j. /<3c5* 



■ 



reg,/^e. 



we shade the surface of the large square, as shown 
in Fig. 135, and you will at once see that not only 
is the effect emphasized, but it all the more clearly 
expresses what you want to show. In like manner, 
in Fig. 136, we shade only the space within the 
inner square, and it is only too obvious how shad- 
ows give us surface conformation. 

Illustrating Cube Shadiitg. — In Fig. 137 1 show 
merely nine lines joined together, all lines being 
of equal thickness. 

As thus drawn it may represent, for instance. 



DEAWING AND ITS UTILITY 



79 



a cube, or it may show simply a square base (A) 
with two sides (B, B) of equal dimensions. 

Shading Effects. — ^Now, to examine it proper- 
ly so as to observe what the draughtsman wishes to 
express, look at Fig. 138, in which the three diverg- 
ing lines (A, B, C) are increased in thickness, 



"v 


T\ 


i 

X 


CL 



jTtg. /37 




:F'tg./3Q. 



<rJS 



JF- 




:r^t^. /3A 



and the cube appears plainly. On the other hand, 
in Fig. 139, the thickening of the lines (D, E, F) 
shows an entirely different structure. 

It must be remembered, therefore, that to show 
raised surfaces the general direction is to shade 
heavily the lower horizontal and the right vertical 
lines. (See Fig. 133.) 

Heavy Lines. — But there is an exception to this 
rule. See two examples (Fig. 140). Here two par- 



80 



CARPENTEY FOR BOYS 



allel lines appear close together to form the edge 
nearest the eye. In such cases the second, or upper, 
line is heaviest. On vertical lines, as in Fig. 141, 
the second line from the right is heaviest. These 
examples show plain geometrical lines, and those 
from Figs. 138 to 141, inclusive, are in perspective. 




:^i9 



^ 




Uo. 



JZ^^. /// 



Peespective. — A perspective is a most deceptive 
figure, and a cube, for instance, may be drawn so 
that the various lines will differ in length, and 
also be equidistant from each other. Or all the 
lines may be of the same length and have the dis- 
tances between them vary, Supposing we have 
two cubes, one located above the other, separated, 
sav, two feet or more from each other. It is obvi- 
ous that the lines of the two cubes will not be the 
same to a camera, because, if they were photo- 
graphed, they would appear exactly as they are^ 
so far as their positions are concerned, and not as 
they appear. But the cubes do appear to the eye 



DRAWING AND ITS UTILITY 



81 



as having six equal sides. The camera shows 
that they do not have six equal sides so far as 
measurement is concerned. You will see, there- 
fore, that the position of the eye, relative to the 




Irig. y^^^ 



nl 


3 


^ 


^^^N:-^ 


nT 


>C 


\^ 


^^^ 


\J) 


iE-^ 


-^k 


h 


NN. 


"^J 


^c 


^^ 


^^If 


^ c^ 


JF'i^ 


y./-f3 



cube, is what determines the angle, or the relative 
angles of all the lines. 

A True Perspective of a Cube. — Fig. 142 shows 
a true perspective — that is, it is true from the meas- 
urement standpoint. It is what is called an iso- 
metrical view, or a figure in which all the lines not 
only are of equal length, but the parallel lines are 



82 



CAEPENTBY FOE BOYS 



all spaced apart the same distances from each 
other. 

Isometric Cube. — I enclose this cube within a 
circle, as in Fig. 143. To form this cube the circle 
(A) is drawn and bisected with a vertical line (B). 
This forms the starting point for stepping off the 
six points (C) in the circle, using the dividers with- 




-oj 



:F^ig.m. 



out resetting, after you have made the circle. 
Then connect each of the points (C) by straight 
lines (D). These lines are called chords. From 
the center draw two lines (E) at an angle and one 
line (F) vertically. These are the radial lines. 
You will see from the foregoing that the chords 
(D) form the outline of the cube — or the lines far- 
thest from the eye, and the radial lines (E, F) 
are the nearest to the eye. In this position we are 
looking at the block at a true diagonal — that is, 
from a corner at one side to the extreme comer 
on the opposite side. 

Let us contrast this, and particularly Fig. 142, 



DEAWING AND ITS UTILITY 



83 



with the cube which is placed higher up, viewed 
from the same standpoint. 

Flattened Peespective. — Fig. 144 shows the 
new perspective, in which the three vertical lines 
(A, A, A) are of equal length, and the six angularly- 
disposed lines (B, C) are of equal length, but 




shorter than the lines A. The only change which 
has been made is to shorten the distance across 
the corner from D to D, but the vertical lines (A) 
are the same in length as the corresponding lines 
in Fig. 143. Notwithstanding this change the 
cubes in both figures appear to be of the same size, 
as, in fact, they really are. 

In forming a perspective, therefore, it would 
be a good idea for the boy to have a cube of wood 
always at hand, which, if laid down on a horizontal 
support, alongside, or within range of the object to 



84 CAEPENTEY FOR BOYS 

be drawn, will serve as a guide to the perspec- 
tive. 

Technical Desigitations. — As all geometrical 
lines have designations, I have incorporated such 
figures as will be most serviceable to the boy, each 
figure being accompanied by its proper definition. 





Before passing to that subject I can better show 
some of the simple forms by means of suitable dia- 
grams. 

Eef erring to Fig. 145, let us direct our attention 
to the body (G), formed by the line (D) across 
the circle. This body is called a segment. A chord 
(D) and a curve comprise a segment. 

Sectoe and Segment. — Now examine the shape 
of the body formed by two of the radial lines (E, 
E) and that part of the circle which extends from 
one radial line to the other. The body thus formed 
is a sector, and it is made by two radiating lines 
and a curved line. Learn to distinguish readily, in 
your mind, the difference between the two figures. 



DEAWING AND ITS UTILITY 85 

Terms of Angles. — The relation of the lines to 
each other, the manner in which they are joined 
together, and their comparative angles, all have 
special terms and meanings. Thns, referring to 
the isometric cube, in Fig. 145, the angle formed 
at the center by the lines (B, E) is different from 
the angle formed at the margin by the lines (E, F). 
The angle formed by B, E is called an exterior 
angle ; and that formed by E, F is an interior angle. 
If you will draw a line (G) from the center to the 
circle line, so it intersects it at C, the lines B, D, G 
form an equilateral or isosceles triangle; if you 
draw a chord (A) from C to C, the lines H, E, F 
will form an obtuse triangle, and B, F, H a right- 
angled triangle. 

Circles and Curves. — Circles, and, in fact, all 
forms of curved work, are the most difficult for 
beginners. The simplest figure is the circle, which, 
if it represents a raised surface, is provided with 
a heavy line on the lower right-hand side, as in 
Fig. 146; but the proper artistic expression is 
shown in Fig. 147, in which the lower right-hand 
side is shaded in rings running only a part of the 
way around, gradually diminishing in length, and 
spaced farther and farther apart as you approach 
the center, thus giving the appearance of a sphere. 

Irregular Curves. — But the irregular curves re- 
quire the most care to form properly. Let us try 



86 



CARPENTEY FOE BOYS 



first tlie elliptical curve (Fig. 148). The proper 
thing is, first, to draw a line (A), which is called 
the "major axis.'' On this axis we mark for our 
guidance two points (B, B). "With the dividers 
find a point (C) exactly midway, and draw a cross 
line (D). This is called the "minor axis.'' If we 




I^tig.Ua. 



choose to do so we may indicate two points (E, E) 
on the minor axis, which, in this case, for con- 
venience, are so spaced that the distance along 
the major axis, between B, B, is twice the length 
across the minor axis (D), along E, E. Now find 
one-quarter of the distance from B to G, as at F, 
and with a compass pencil make a half circle (G). 
If, now, you will set the compass point on the center 
mark (C), and the pencil point of the compass on 
B, and measure along the minor axis (D) on both 



DEAWING AND ITS UTILITY 87 

sides of the major axis, you will make two points, 
as at H. These points are your centers for scrib- 
ing the long sides of the ellipse. Before proceed- 
ing to strike the curved lines (J), draw a diagonal 
line (K) from H to each marking point (F). 
Do this on both sides of the major axis, and pro- 
duce these lines so they cross the curved lines (G). 
When you ink in your ellipse do not allow the cir- 
cle pen to cross the lines (K), and you will have a 
mechanical ellipse. 

Ellipses and Ovals. — It is not necessary to 
measure the centering points (F) at certain speci- 
fied distances from the intersection of the horizon- 
tal and vertical lines. We may take any point 
along the major axis, as shown, for instance, in 
Fig. 149. Let B be this point, taken at random. 
Then describe the half circle (C). We may, alsO; 
arbitrarily, take any point, as, for instance, D on 
the minor axis E, and by drawing the diagonal 
lines (F) we find marks on the circle (C), which 
are the meeting lines for the large curve (H), with 
the small curve (C). In this case we have formed 
an ovate or an oval form. Experience will soon 
make perfect in following out these directions! 

Focal Points. — The focal point of a circle is its 
center, and is called the focus. But an ellipse has 
two focal points, called foci^ represented by F, F in 
Fig. 148, and by B, B in Fig. 149. 



88 



CAEPENTRY FOR BOYS 



A produced line is one which extends out be- 
yond the marking point. Thus in Fig. 148 that 
part of the line K between F and G represents 
the produced portion of line K, 

Spirals. — There is no more difficult figure to 
make with a bow or a circle pen than a spiral. In 




T^l^. /4J. 



Fig. 150 a horizontal and a vertical line (A, B), 
respectively, are drawn, and at their intersection 
a small circle (C) is formed. This now provides 
for four centering points for the circle pen, on 
the two lines (A, B). Intermediate these points 
indicate a second set of marks halfway between 
the marks on the lines. If you will now set the 
point of the compass at, say, the mark 3, and the 
pencil point of the compass at D, and make a 
curved mark one-eighth of the way around, say, 
to the radial line (E), then put the point of the 



DEAWING AND ITS UTILITY 



89 



compass to 4, and extend the pencil point of the 
compass so it coincides with the curved line just 
drawn, and then again make another curve, one- 
eighth of a complete circle, and so on around the 
entire circle of marking points, successively^ you 
will produce a spiral, which, although not abso- 
lutely accurate, is the nearest approach with a cir- 




j^t^y^o 



cle pen. To make this neatly requires care and 
patience. 

Perpet^dicular and Vertical. — A few words 
now as to terms. The boy is often confused in de- 
termining the difference between perpendicular 
and vertical. There is a pronounced difference. 
Vertical means up and down. It is on a line in 
the direction a ball takes when it falls straight 
toward the center of the earth. The word perpen- 
dicular^ as usually employed in astronomy, means 
the same thing, but in geometry, or in drafting, or 
in its use in the arts it means that a perpendicular 



90 CARPENTEY FOR BOYS 

line is at right angles to some other line. Suppose 
you put a square upon a roof so that one leg of the 
square extends up and down on the roof, and the 
other leg projects outwardly from the roof. In 
this case the projecting leg is perpendicular to the 
roof. Never use the word vertical in this connec- 
tion. 

Signs to Indicate Measukements. — The small 
circle (°) is always used to designate degree. 
Thus 10^ means ten degrees. 

Feet are indicated by the single mark ' ; and two 
closely allied marks " are for inches. Thus five 
feet ten inches should be written 5' 10". A large 
cross (X) indicates the word ^'by," and in express- 
ing the term six feet by three feet two inches, it 
should be written & X 3' 2". 

The foregoing figures give some of the funda- 
mentals necessary to be acquired, and it may be 
said that if the boy will learn the principles in- 
volved in the drawings he will have no difficulty 
in producing intelligible work; but as this is not 
a treatise on drawing we cannot go into the more 
refined phases of the subject. 

Definitions. — The following figures show the 
various geometrical forms and their definitions : 

151. Abscissa, — The point in a curve, A, which 
is referred to by certain lines, such as B, which 
extend out from an axis, X, or the ordinate line Z. 



DEAWING AND ITS UTILITY 



91 



152. Angle. — The inclosed space near the point 
where two lines meet. 

153. Apothegm. — The perpendicular line A from 
the center to one side of a regular polygon. It 
represents the radial line of a polygon the same 
as the radius represents half the diameter of a 
circle. 

154. Apsides or Apsis. — One of two points, A, 

A, of an orbit, oval or ellipse^ farthest from the 
axis, or the two small dots. 

155. Chord. — A right line, as A, uniting the 
extremities of the arc of a circle or a curve. 

156. Convolute (see also Involute). — Usually 
employed to designate a wave or folds in op- 
posite directions. A double involute. 

157. Conic Section. — Having the form of or re- 
sembling a cone. Formed by cutting off a cone 
at any angle. See line A. 

158. Conoid. — Anything that has a form re- 
sembling that of a cone. 

159. Cycloid. — A curve, A, generated by a point, 

B, in the plane of a circle or wheel, C, when 
the wheel is rolled along a straight line. 

160. Ellipsoid. — A solid, all plane sections of 
which are ellipses or circles. 

161. Epicycloid. — A curve, A, traced by a point, 
B, in the circumference of a wheel, C, which rolls 
on the convex side of a fixed circle, D. 

162. E volute. — A curve, A, from which another 
curve, like B, on each of the inner ends of the 
lines C is made. D is a spool, and the lines C 
represent a thread at different positions. The 
thread has a marker, E, so that w^hen the thread 
is wound on the spool the marker E makes the 
evolute line A. 

163. Focus. — The center. A, of a circle; also 
one of the two centering points, B, of an ellipse 
or an oval. 

164. Gnome. — The space included between the 
boundary lines of two similar parallelograms, the 
one within the other, with an angle in common. 

165. Hyperbola. — A curve. A, formed by the sec- 
tion of ^ cone. If the cone is cut off vertically 
on the dotted line. A, the curve is a hyperbola. 
See Parabola. 

167. Hypothenuse. — The side, A, of a right- 
angled triangle which is opposite to the right 
angle B, C. A, regular triangle; C, irregular tri- 
angle. 




X/5/ 




/63 








755 



/6e 




/67 



OsCl 



/6d 







/60 





/e>z 



'63 



^^9« 




92 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 




•^c^.. 



iM 



170 



'fW - 



w 




/Z8 



ooo 

m 



4k\ 




r76 



L 



/7e 



m 



777 




^1 776 




^ 



17S 



760 










^^^ 



?32 



783 



/64 



168. Incidence. — The angle, A, which is the 
same angle as, for instance, a raj of light, B, 
which falls on a mirror, C. The line D is the 
perpendicular. 

169. Isosceles Triangle. — Having +wo sides or 
legs. A, A, that are equal. 

170. Parabola. — One of the conic sections formed 
by cutting of a cone so that the cut line, A, is 
not vertical. See Hyperbola where the cut line 
is vertical. 

171. Parallelogram. — A right-lined quadilateral 
figure, whose opposite sides. A, A, or B, B, are 
parallel and consequently equal. 

172. Pelecoid. — A figure, somewhat hatchet- 
shaped, bounded by a semicircle. A, and two in- 
verted quadrants, and equal to a square, C. 

173. Polygons. — Many-sided and many with 
angles. 

174. Pyramid. — ^A solid structure generally with 
a square base and having its sides meeting in an 
apex or peak. The peak is the vertex. 

175. Quadrant. — The quarter of a circle or of 
the circumference of a circle. A horizontal line, 
A, and a vertical line, B, make the four quad- 
rants, like C. 

176. Quadrilateral. — A plane figure having four 
sides, and consequently four angles. Any figure 
formed by four lines. 

177. Rhomb. — An equilateral parallelogram or a 
quadrilateral figure whose sides are equal and the 
opposite sides, B, B, parallel. 

178. Sector. — A part. A, of a circle formed by 
two radial lines, B, B, and bounded at the end 
by a curve. 

179. Segment. — A part. A, cut from a circle by 
a straight line, B. The straight line, B, is the 
chord or the segmental line. 

180. Sinusoid. — A wave-like form. It may be 
regular or irregular. 

181. Tangent. — A line, A, running out from the 
curve at right angles from a radial line. 

182. Tetrahedron. — A solid figure enclosed or 
bounded by four triangles, like A or B. A plain 
pyramid is bounded by five triangles. 

183. Vertex. — The meeting point, A, of two or 
more lines. 

184. Volute. — A spiral scroll, used largely in 
architecture, which forms one of the chief fea- 
tures of the Ionic capital. 



CHAPTER IX 

MOLDINGS, WITH PKACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS IN EMBEL- 
LISHING WORK 

Moldings. — The use of moldings was early re- 
sorted to by the nations of antiquity, and we mar- 
vel to-day at many of the beautiful designs which 
the Phoenecians, the Greeks and the Romans pro- 
duced. If you analyze the lines used you will be 
surprised to learn how few are the designs which 
go to make up the wonderful columns, spires, mina- 
rets and domes which are represented in the vari- 
ous types of architecture. 

The Basis of Moldings. — Suppose we take the 
base type of moldings, and see how simple they 
are and then, by using these forms, try to build 
up or ornament some article of furniture, as an 
example of their utility. 

The Simplest Molding. — In Fig. 185 we show 
a molding of the most elementary character 
known, being simply in the form of a band (A) 
placed below the cap. Such a molding gives to 
the article on which it is placed three distinct 
lines, C, D and E, If you stop to consider you 
will note that the molding, while it may add to 
the strength of the article, is primarily of service 

93 



94 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



because the lines and surfaces produce shadows, 
and therefore become valuable in an artistic sense. 
The Asteagai.. — Fig. 186 shows the ankle-bone 
molding, technically called the Astragal. This 
form is round, and properly placed produces a 
good effect, as it throws the darkest shadow of 
any form of molding. 

I 






W^. 



A:^ 



>^ 



:P^tqJaa Ban^. 









<M 









roctntt . 



The Cavetto. — Fig. 187 is the cavetto, or round 
type. Its proper use gives a delicate outline, but 
it is principally applied with some other form 
of molding. 

The Ovolo. — Fig. 188, called the ovolo, is a 
quarter round molding with the lobe (A) pro- 
jecting downwardly. It is distinguished from 



MOLDINGS— ILLUSTEATIONS 95 

the astragal because it casts less of a shadow 
above and below. 

The Toetjs.— Fig. 189, known as the torns, is 
a modified form of the ovolo, but the lobe (A) pro- 
jects out horizontally instead of downwardly. 

The Apophyges (Pronounced apof-i-ges).— Fig, 
190 is also called the scape, and is a concaved type 
of molding, being a hollowed curvature used on 




7^./dSi!£h23£^ 





jTi^ySl Cj^isiuah, 






columns where its form causes a merging of the 
shaft with the fillet. 

The Cymatium. — Fig. 191 is the cymatium (de- 
rived from the word cyme), meaning wave-like. 
This form must be in two curves, one inwardly 
and one outwardly. 

The Ogee. — Fig. 192, called the ogee, is the most 
useful of all moldings, for two reasons: First, 
it may have the concaved surface uppermost, in 
which form it is called ogee recta — that is, right 



96 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



side Tip ; or it may be inverted, as in Fig. 193, with 
the concaved surface below, and is then called 
ogee reversa. Contrast these two views and you 
will note what a difference the mere inversion of 
the strip makes in the appearance. Second, be- 
cause the ogee has in it, in a combined form, the 
outlines of nearly all the other types. The only 




*?3i/^. jQ^^-T^^^/'^g,; 



— --' or J^eeOu. 



QLS££0^- 



advantage there is in using the other types is 
because you may thereby build up and space your 
work better than by using only one simple form. 
You will notice that the ogee is somewhat like 
the cymatium, the difference being that the con- 
caved part is not so pronounced as in the ogee, 
and the convexed portion bulges much further than 
in the ogee. It is capable of use with other mold- 
ings, and may be reversed with just as good effect 
as the ogee. 



MOLDINGS— ILLUSTEATIONS 97 

The Eeedy. — Fig. 194 represents the reedy, or 
the bead — that is, it is made up of reeds. It is a 
type of molding which should not be used with any 
other pronounced type of molding. 

The Casement (Fig. 195). — In this we have a 
form of molding used almost exclusively at the 
base of structures, such as columns, porticoes and 
like work. 




Now, before proceeding to use these moldings, 
let us examine a Eoman-Doric column, one of the 
most famous types of architecture produced. We 
shall see how the ancients combined moldings to 
produce grace, lights and shadows and artistic 
effects. 

The Eoman-Doric Column. — In Fig. 196 is 
shown a Eoman-Doric column, in which the cyma- 
tium, the ovolo, cavetto, astragal and the ogee are 
used, together with the fillets, bases and caps, 
and it is interesting to study this because of its 
beautiful proportions. 

The pedestal and base are equal in vertical 
dimensions to the entablature and capital. The en- 
tablature is but slightly narrower than the pedes- 



98 



CAEPENTRY FOR BOYS 



"JTntabl a ruHc 



Coin. tcLiTZii 



cLcli,7tq , 




Cumcu - Ooee Mouidtt^c 
CoT-oitcu. ^ ^ 

Oi/cto - Rou7zd. or Co?fCvex. 



.Z.ocoerjF^ctctCL . 






:r^&^. i3€. 



MOLDINGS— ILLUSTEATIONS 99 

tal; and the length of the column is, approxi- 
mately, four times the height of the pedestal. 
The base of the shaft, while larger diametrically 
than the capital, is really shorter measured ver- 
tically. There is a reason for this. The eye must 
travel a greater distance to reach the upper end 
of the shaft, and is also at a greater angle to that 
part of the shaft, hence it appears shorter, while 
it is in reality longer. For this reason a capital 
must be longer or taller than the base of a shaft, 
^nd it is also smaller in diameter. 

It will be well to study the column not only on 
account of the wonderful blending of the various 
forms of moldings, but because it will impress you 
with a sense of proportions, and give you an idea 
of how simple lines may be employed to great ad- 
vantage in all your work. 

Lessons from the Doric Column. — As an ex- 
ample, suppose we take a plain cabinet, and en- 
deavor to embellish it with the types of molding 
described, and you will see to what elaboration 
the operation may be carried. 

Applying Molding. — Let Fig. 197 represent the 
front, top and bottom of our cabinet ; and the first 
thing we shall do is to add a base (A) and a cap 
(B). Now, commencing at the top, suppose we 
utilize the simplest form of molding, the band. 

This we may make of any desired width, as 



100 



CAEPENTRY FOR BOYS 



shown in Fig. 198. On this band we can apply the 
ogee type (Fig. 199) right side up. 

But for variation we may decide to use the 
ogee reversed, as in Fig. 200. This will afford 
us something else to think about and will call upon 



1j9 



of 



JT 



JF^tgJSZ 




7^i^./S8. 



I 



our powers of initiative in order to finish off the 
lower margin or edge of the ogee reversa. 

If we take the ogee recta, as shown in Fig. 201, 
we may use the cavetto, or the ovolo (Fig. 202) ; 
but if we use the ogee reversa we must use a con- 
vex molding like the cavetto at one base, and 



MOLDINGS— ILLUSTRATIONS 101 

a convex molding, like the torus or the ovolo, 
at the other base. 

In the latter (Fig. 202) four different mold- 
ings are used with the ogee as the principal 
structure. 

Base Embellishments. — In like manner (Fig. 
204) the base may have the casement type first at- 




:i!^tx^.Z0Q. 





yr^tg.^os 



^i3 



.Z02. 



tached in the corner, and then the ovolo, or the 
astragal added, as in Fig. 203. 

Steaight-faced Moldings. — Now let us carry 
the principle still further, and, instead of using 
various type of moldings, we will employ nothing 
but straight strips of wood. This treatment will 
soon indicate to you that the true mechanic or 
artisan is he who can take advantage of whatever 
he finds at hand. 

Let us take the same cabinet front (Fig. 205), 
and below the cap (A) place a narrow strip (B), 
the lower corner of which has been chamfered off, 
as at C. Below the strip B is a thinner strip (D), 
vertically disposed, and about two-thirds its width. 
The lower corner of this is also chamfered, as at 



102 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



F. To finish, apply a small strip (G) in the cor- 
ner, and you have an embellished top that has 
the appearance, from a short distance, of being 
made np of molding. 

Plaii^ Molded Base. — The base may be treated 
in the same manner. The main strip (4) has its 
upper corner chamfered off, as at I, and on this 
is nailed a thin, narrow finishing strip (J). The 
upper part or molded top, in this case, has eleven 



T^i^.^Od. 



jriff.^0^^ 



distinct lines, and the base has six lines. By ex- 
perimenting you may soon put together the most 
available kinds of molding strips. 

DivEESiFiED Uses. — For a great overhang you 
may use the cavetto, or the apophyges, and below 
that the astragal or the torus; and for the base 
the casement is the most serviceable molding, and 
it may be finished off with the ovolo or the cyma- 
tium. 

Pages of examples might be cited to show the 
variety and the diversification available with dif- 
ferent types. 



MOLDINGS— ILLUSTEATIONS 103 

Shadows Cast by Moldings. — Always bear in 
mind that a curved surface makes a blended 
shadow. A straight, flat or plain surface does 
not, and it is for that reason the concaved and 
the convexed surfaces, brought out by moldings, 
become so important. 




6 



A little study and experimenting will soon 
teach you how a convex, a concave or a flat surface, 
and a corner or corners should be arranged rela- 
tively to each other; how much one should project 
beyond the other; and what the proportional 
widths of the different molding bands should be. 
An entire volume would scarcely exhaust this sub- 
ject. 



CHAPTER X 

AIT ANALYSIS OF TENONING, MORTISING, EABBETING 

AND BEADING 

In the chapter on How Work is Laid Out, an 
example was given of the particular manner pur- 
sued in laying out mortises and tenons, and also 
dovetailed work. I deem it advisable to add some 
details to the subject, as well as to direct atten- 
tion to some features which do not properly belong 
to the laying out of work. 

Where Mortises Should Be Used, — Most im- 
portant of all is a general idea of places and con- 
ditions under which mortises should be resorted 
to. There are four ways in which different mem- 
bers may be secured to each other. First, by 
mortises and tenons; second, by a lap-and-butt ; 
third, by scarfing; and, fourth, by tonguing and 
grooving. 

Depth of Mortises. — When a certain article is 
to be made, the first consideration is, how the 
joint or joints shall be made. The general rule 
for using the tenon and mortise is where two 
parts are joined wherein the grains of the two 

104 



TENONING, MOETISING, ETC. 105 

members run at right angles to each other, as in 
the following figure. 

EuLE FOR Mortises. — Fig. 206 shows such an 
example. You will notice this in doors particu- 
larly, as an example of work. 

The next consideration is, shall the mortises be 
cut entirely through the piece? This is answered 
by the query as to whether or not the end of the 




:f^.^6^ 




^ ^ jrtg.^07.> 




tenon will be exposed; and usually, if a smooth 
finish is required, the mortise should not go 
through the member. In a door, however, the 
tenons are exposed at the edges of the door, and 
are, therefore, seen, so that we must apply some 
other rule. The one universally adopted is, that 
where, as in a door stile, it is broad and compara- 
tively thin, or where the member having the mor- 



106 



CAEPENTRY FOR BOYS 



tise in its edge is much thinner than its width, the 
mortise should go through from edge to edge. 

The reason for this lies in the inability to sink 
the mortises through the stile (A, Fig. 207) per- 
fectly true, and usually the job is turned out 
something like the illustration shows. The side 







of the rail (B) must be straight with the side of 
the stile. If the work is done by machinery it 
results in accuracy unattainable in hand work. 

Tkue Mortise Woek. — The essense of good join- 
ing work is the ability to sink the chisel true with 
the side of the member. More uneven work is 
produced by haste than by inability. The ten- 



TENONING, MORTISING, ETC. 107 

dency of all beginners is to strike the chisel too 
hard, in order the more qnickly to get down to 
the bottom of the mortise. Hence, bad work 
follows. 

Steps iiq- Cutting Moetises. — Examine Fig. 208, 
which, for convenience, gives six successive steps 
in making the mortise. The marks a^ h designate 
the limits, or the length, of the mortise. The 
chisel (C) is not started at the marking line {A)y 
but at least an eighth of an inch from it. The 
first cut, as at B, gives a starting point for the 
next cut or placement of the chisel. When the sec- 
ond cut (B) has thus been made, the chisel should 
be turned around, as in dotted line d, position 

C, thereby making a finish cut down to the bottom 
of the mortise, line e, so that when the fourth cut 
has been made along line f, we are ready for the 
fifth cut, position C; then the sixth cut, position 

D, which leaves the mortise as shown at E. Then 
turn the chisel to the position shown at F, and 
cut down the last end of the mortise square, as 
shown in G, and clean out the mortise well before 
making the finishing cuts on the marking lines 
{a, b). The particular reason for cleaning out 
the mortise before making the finish cuts is, that 
the corners of the mortise are used as fulcrums 
for the chisels, and the eighth of an inch stock 
still remaining protects the corners. 



108 CARPENTRY FOE BOYS 

Things to Avoid in Moetising. — You must be 
careful to refrain from undercutting as your chisel 
goes down at tlie lines a, h, because if you com- 
mit this error you will make a bad joint. 

As much care should be exercised in producing 
the tenon, although the most common error is apt 
to occur in making the shoulder. This should be 
a trifle undercut. 



jr^.^09. 



> 



See the lines (A, Fig. 209), which illustrate this. 

Lap-and-Butt Joint. — The lap-and-butt is the 
form of uniting members which is most generally 
used to splice together timbers, where they join 
each other end to end. 



X=L 







Bolts are used to secure the laps. 

But the lap-and-butt form is also used in doors 
and in other cabinet work. It is of great service 
in paneling. 



TENONING, MORTISING, ETC. 109 

A rabbet is formed to receive the edge of the 
panel, and a molding is then secured to the other 
side on the panel, to hold the latter in place. 

ScAKFiNG. — This method of securing members 
together is the most rigid, and when properly per- 




JTig.&lt 



formed makes the joint the strongest part of the 
timber. Each member (A, Fig. 212) has a step 
diagonally cut (B), the two steps being on differ- 
ent planes, so they form a hook joint, as at C, 
and as each point or terminal has a blunt end, 
the members are so constructed as to withstand 
a longitudinal strain in either direction. The 
overlapping plates (D) and the bolts (E) hold 
the joint rigidly. 

The Tongue and Groove. — This form of uniting 
members has only a limited application. It is 



110 



CARPENTEY FOR BOYS 



serviceable for floors, table tops, paneling, etc. In 
Fig. 213, a door panel is shown, and tbe door 
mullions (B) are also so secured to the rail (C). 




jris.^ta. 



The tongne-and-groove method is never used by 
itself. It must always have some support or re- 
inforcing means. 




w 



J=^tff.AU. 



> 



2^^,A/^. 



Beading. — This part of the work pertains to 
surface finishings, and may or may not be used in 
connection with rabbeting. 

Figs. 214 and 215 show the simplest and most 
generally adopted forms in which it is made and 
used in connection with rabbeting, or with the 
tongue and groove. The bead is placed on one 
or both sides of that margin of the board (Fig. 
214) which has the tongue, and the adjoining 
board has the usual flooring groove to butt against 
and receive the tongue. It is frequently the case 
that a blind bead, as in Fig. 215, runs through 



TENONING, MORTISING, ETC. Ill 

the middle of tlie board, so as to give the appear- 
ance of narrow strips when used for wainscoting, 
or for ceilings. The beads also serve to hide the 
joints of the boards. 

CZD^CD CD 

Ornamental Bead Finish. — These figures show 
how the bead may be used for finishing comers, 
edges and projections. Fig. 216 has a bead at 
each corner of a stile (A), and a finishing strip 
of half-round material (B) is nailed to the flat 
edge. Fig. 217 has simply the corners themselves 
beaded, and it makes a most serviceable finish for 
the edges of projecting members. 

Fig. 218, used for wider members, has the cor- 
ners beaded and a fancy molding (C) ; or the re- 
duced edge of the stile itself is rounded off. 



ao 



The Bead and Eabbet.— A more amplified form 
of work is available where the rabbet plane is 
used with the header. These two planes together 



112 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

will, if properly used, offer a strong substitute for 
molding and molding effects. 

Fig. 219 has both sides first rabbeted, as at A, 
and the corners then beaded, as at B, with the 
reduced part of the member rounded off, as at C. 
Or, as in Fig. 220, the reduced edge of the member 
may have the corners beaded, as at D, and the 
rabbeted corners filled in with a round or con- 
caved moulding (E). 

Shading with Beads and Eabbets. — ^You will 
see from the foregoing, that these embellishments 
are serviceable because they provide the article 
with a large number of angles and surfaces to 
cast lights and shadows ; and for this reason the 
boy should strive to produce the effects which this 
class of work requires. 



CHAPTEE XI 

HOUSE BUILDING 

House Building is the carpenter's craft; cab- 
inet-making the joiner's trade, yet both are so in- 
timately associated, that it is difficult to draw a 
line. The same tools, the same methods and the 
same materials are employed. 

There is no trade more ennobling than home 
building. It is a vocation which touches every 
man and woman, and to make it really an art is, 
or should be, the true aspiration of every crafts- 
man. 

The House and Embellishments. — The refined 
arts, such as sculpture and painting, merely em- 
bellish the home or the castle, so that when we 
build the structure it should be made with an eye 
not only to comfort and convenience, but fitting in 
an artistic and aesthetic sense. It is just as easy 
to build a beautiful home as an ugly, ungainly, illy 
proportioned structure. 

Beauty Not Oknamentation. — The boy, in his 
early training, should learn this fundamental 
truth, that beauty, architecturally, does not de- 
pend upon ornamentation. Some of the most 
beautiful structures in the world are very plain. 

113 



114 CARPENTEY FOE BOYS 

Beauty consists in proportions, in proper corela- 
tion of parts, and in adaptation for the uses to 
which the structure is to be put. 

Plaiit Structukes. — A house with a plain 
fagade, having a roof properly pitched and with 
a simple cornice, if joined to a wing which is not 
ungainly or out of proper proportions, is infinitely 
more beautiful than a rambling structure, in which 
one part suggests one order of architecture and 
the other part some other type or no type at all, 
and in which the embellishments are out of keep- 
ing with the size or pretensions of the house. 

Colonial Type. — For real beauty, on a larger 
scale, there is nothing to-day which equals the 
old Colonial type with the Corinthian columns and 
entablature. The Lee mansion, now the National 
Cemetery, at Washington, is a fine example. 
Such houses are usually square or rectangular in 
plan, severely plain, with the whole ornamentation 
consisting of the columns and the portico. This 
type presents an appearance of massiveness and 
grandeur and is an excellent illustration of a 
form wherein the main characteristic of the struc- 
ture is concentrated or massed at one point. 

The Church of the Madelaine, Paris, is another 
striking example of this period of architecture. 

Of course, it would be out of place with cottages 
and small houses, but it is well to study and to 



HOUSE BUILDING- 115 

know what forms are most available and desirable 
to adopt, and particularly to know something of 
the art in which you are interested. 

The Eoof the Keynote. — Now, there is one 
thing which should, and does, distinguish the resi- 
dence from other types of buildings, excepting 
churches. It is the roof. A house is dominated 
by its covering. I refer to the modern home. It 
is not true with the Colonial or the Grecian types. 
In those the fagade or the columns and cornices 
predominate over everything else. 

Bungalow Types. — If you will take up any book 
on bungalow work and note the outlines of the 
views you will see that the roof forms the main 
element or theme. In fact, in most buildings of 
this kind everything is submerged but the roof 
and roof details. They are made exceedingly flat, 
with different pitches with dormers and gables in- 
termingled and indiscriminately placed, with cor- 
nices illy assorted and of different kinds, so that 
the multiplicity of diversified details gives an ap- 
pearance of great elaboration. Many of those 
designs are monstrosities and should, if possible, 
be legally prohibited. 

I cannot attempt to give even so much as an 
outline of what constitutes art in its relation to 
building, but my object is to call attention to 
this phase of the question, and as you proceed in 



116 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

your studies and your work you will realize the 
value and truthfulness of the foregoing observa- 
tions. 

General House Buildin-g. — ^We are to treat, 
generally, on the subject of house building, how 
the work is laid out, and how built, and in doing 
so I shall take a concrete example of the work. 
This can be made more effectual for the purpose 
if it is on simple lines. 

Building Plans. — We must first have a plan; 
and the real carpenter must have the ability to 
plan as well as to do the work. We want a five- 
room house, comprising a parlor, dining room, two 
bedrooms, a kitchen and a bathroom. Just a mod- 
est little home, to which we can devote our spare 
hours, and which will be neat and comfortable 
when finished. It must be a one-story house, and 
that fact at once settles the roof question. We 
can make the house perfectly square in plan, or 
rectangular, and divide up the space into the 
proper divisions. 

The Plain Squaee Floor Plan will first be 
taken up, as it is such an easy roof to build. Of 
course, it is severely plain. 

Fig. 221 shows our proposed plan, drawn in the 
rough, without any attempts to measure the differ- 
ent apartments, and with the floor plan exactly 
square. Supposing we run a hall (A) through 



HOUSE BUILDING 



117 



"I" ' "I 



J9cz^ ^ 



TTtfcheTt 



/ 



± 



ChiMTiezi 



€lc<e/& 



jSt 



> 



JH»(n^iioofM, 



2^^.££/. 



/ 



/\ 



jPorffco 



JBecl T^ooMt 




-Saiioi 



the middle. On one side of this let ns plan for 
a dining room and a kitchen, a portion of the 
kitchen space to be given over to a closet and a 
bathroom. 

The chimney (B) mnst be made accessible from 
both rooms. On the other side of the hallway the 
space is divided into a parlor and two bedrooms. 



118 



CAEPENTRY FOR BOYS 



The Rectangulae Plan. — In the rectangular 
floor plan (Fig. 222) a portion of the floor space is 
cnt out for a porch (A), so that we may use the 
end or the side for the entrance. Supposing we 
use the end of the house for this purpose. The 
entrance room (B) may be a bedroom, or a recep- 



jded^Jtoorn 


/ JBedJioot^ 


Kt^chtn 






JBaffi 






1 ^^ 


y 




I 

C 

1 


/ Chimne^V' 


\ 


-r — 1 




'-JSccPFp.^ ' 


3 T^r^fe^ 


TaHcr j 


:?:mi2^:QoonL. 




J9 


F 




3 f 










JTi 


■^.s^a. 









tion and living room, and to the rear of this 
room is the dining room, connected with the recep- 
tion room by a hall (C). This hall also leads to 
the kitchen and to the bathroom, as well as to the 
other bedroom. The parlor is connected with the 
entrance room (B), and also with the bedroom. 
All of this is optional, of course. 

There are also two chimneys, one chimney (D) 



HOUSE BUILDING 



119 




^zff.JS^d. 



having two flues and the other chimney (E) hav- 
ing three flues, so that every room is accommo- 
dated. 

EooM Measurements. — We must now determine 
the dimensions of each room, and then how we 
shall build the roof. 

In Figs. 223 and 224, we have now drawn out 



120 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



in detail the sizes, the locations of the door and 
windows, the chimneys and the closets, as well 
as the bathroom. All this work may be changed 
or modified to snit conditions and the taste of the 
designer. 



30'^" 




j^^.as4. 



Fkont and Side Lines. — From the floor diagram, 
and the door and window spaces, as marked out, 
we may now proceed to lay out rough front and 
side outlines of the building. The ceilings are to 
be 9 feet, and if we put a rather low-pitched 
roof on the square structure (Fig. 223) the front 
may look something like Fig. 225, and a greater 
pitch given to the rectangular plan (Fig. 224) will 
present a view as shown in Fig. 226. 



HOUSE BUILDING 



121 




:F-'ig. ^25. 




n 



y I, , .J 



2^1^. >e^6. 



The Eoof.— The pitch of the roof (Fig. 225) is 
what is called ^^third pitch," and the roof (Fig. 
226) has a half pitch. A "third'' pitch is deter- 
mined as follows: 

10 



122 



GAEPENTRY FOE BOYS 



Roof Pitch. — In Fig. 227 draw a vertical line 
(A) and join it by a horizontal line (B). Then 
strike a circle (C) and step it off into three parts. 
The line (D), which intersects the first mark (E) 
and the angle of the lines (A, B), is the pitch. 

In Fig. 228 the line A is struck at 15 degrees, 
which is halfway between lines B and C, and it is, 
therefore, termed "half-pitch.'^ 





.7^./a?7 



jrig.^d. 



Thns, we have made the ground plans, the ele- 
vations and the roofs as simple as possible. Let 
us proceed next with the details of the building. 

The Foundation. — This may be of brick, stone 
or concrete, and its dimensions should be at least 
\\ inches further out than the sill. 

The Sills. — ^We are going to build what is called 
a "balloon frame"; and, first, we put down the 
sills, which will be a course of 2" x 6", or 2" x 8" 
joists, as in Fig. 229. 

The Flooeing Joist. — The flooring joists (A) 
are then put down (Fig. 230). These should ex- 



HOUSE BUILDING 



123 



tend clear across the house from side to side, if 
possible, or, if the plan is too wide, they should 
be lapped at the middle wall and spiked together. 
The ends should extend out flush with the outer 



S 



^^ 



^-f '-^—U 



-±:.:rF^^^ 



fV "-"■ 1---:-"^^ 




^=^'\- 




JF-ig.^SO 



margins of the sills, as shown, but in putting down 
the first and last sill, space must be left along 
the sides of the joist of sufficient width to place 
the studding. 

The Studding. — The next step is to put the 
studding into position. 4" x 4" must be used for 
corners and at the sides of door and window open- 



124 CAEPENTRY FOE BOYS 

ings. 4" X 6" may be nsed at corners, if pre- 
ferred. Consult your plan and see where the 
openings are for doors and windows. Measure 
the widths of the door and window frames, and 
make a measuring stick for this purpose. You 
must leave at least one-half inch clearance for 
the window or door frame, so as to give sufficient 
room to plumb and set the frame. 

Setting Up. — First set up the corner posts, 
plumbing and bracing them. Cut a top plate for 
each side you are working on. 



^ 



The Plate. — As it will be necessary in our job 
to use two or more lengths of 2" x 4" scantling for 
the plate, it will be necessary to join them to- 
gether. Do this with a lap-and-butt joint (Fig. 
231). 

Then set up the 4" x 4" posts for the sides of the 
doors and windows, and for the partition walls. 

The plate should be laid down on the sill, and 
marked with a pencil for every scantling to corre- 
spond with the sill markings. The plate is then 
put on and spiked to the 4" x 4" posts. 

Intekmediate Studding. — It will then be an 



HOUSE BUILDING 125 

easy matter to put in the intermediate 2" x 4" 
studding, placing them as nearly as possible 16 
inches apart to accommodate the 48-inch plaster- 
ing lath. 

Wall Headers. — When all the studding are in 
you will need headers above and rails below the 




windows and headers above all the doors, so that 
you will have timbers to nail the siding to, as 
well as for the lathing. 

Ceiling Joists. — We are now ready for the ceil- 
ing joists, which are, usually, 2" x 6", unless there 
is an upper floor. These are laid 16 inches apart 
from center to center, preferably parallel with 
the floor joist. 

It should be borne in mind that the ceil- 



126 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



ing joist must always be put on with reference 
to the roof. 

Thus, in Fig. 232, the ceiling joists (A) have 
their ends resting on the plate (B), so that the 
rafters are in line with the joists. 

Bkaces. — It would also be well, in putting up the 
studding, to use plenty of braces, although for a 




JF^.;S53. 



one-story building this is not so essential as in 
two-story structures, because the weather board- 
ing serves as a system of bracing. 

The Eafters. — These may be made to provide 
for the gutter or not, as may be desired. They 
should be of 2" x 4" scantling. 

The Gutter. — In Fig. 233 1 show a most service- 
able way to provide for the gutter. A V-shaped 
notch is cut out of the upper side of the rafter, 
in which is placed the floor and a side. This 



HOUSE BUILDING 



127 



floor piece is raised at one end to provide an in- 
cline for the water. 

A face-board is then applied and nailed to 
the ends of the rafters. This face-board is sur- 
mounted by a cap, which has an overhang, be- 
neath which is a molding of any convenient pat- 
tern. The face-board projects down at least two 
inches below the angled cut of the rafter, so that 
when the base-board is applied, the lower margin 




-2^.^03^ 1 



of the face-board will project one inch below the 
base. 

This base-board is horizontal, as you will see. 
The facia-board may be of any desired width, 
and a comer molding should be added. It is 
optional to use the brackets, but if added they 
should be spaced apart a distance not greater 
than twice the height of the bracket. 

A much simpler form of gutter is shown in Fig. 
234, in which a V-shaped notch is also cut in the 



128 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



rafter, and the channel is made by the pieces. 
The end of the rafter is cut at right angles, 
so the face-board is at an angle. This is also sur- 
mounted by an overhanging cap and a molding. 
The base is nailed to the lower edges of the raf- 
ters, and the facia is then applied. 




WA 


~1 






^^_ 





JTt^.^Si^ 



In Fig. 234a the roof has no gutter, so that the 
end of the rafter is cut off at an angle and a mold- 
ing applied on the face-board. The base is nailed 
to the rafters. This is the cheapest and simplest 
form of structure for the roof. 

Setting Dook and Window Frames. — The next 
step in order is to set the door and window frames 
preparatory to applying the weather boarding. 
It is then ready for the roof, which should be put 
on before the floor is laid. 

Plastering and Inside Finish. — Next in order 
is the plastering, then the base-boards and the 



HOUSE BUILDING 129 

casing; and, finally, the door and windows should 
be fitted into position. 

Enough has been said here merely to give a 
general outline, with some details, how to proceed 
with the work. 



CHAPTEE XII 

BEIDGES, TRUSSED WORK AND LIKE STRUCTURES 

Bridges. — Bridge building is not, strictly, a part 
of the carpenter's education at tlie present day, 
because most structures of this kind are now built 
of steel; but there are certain principles involved 
in bridge construction which the carpenter should 
master. 

Self-supporting Eoofs. — In putting up, for in- 
stance, self-supporting roofs, or ceilings with wide 
spans, and steeples or towers, the bridge principle 
of trussed members should be understood. 

The most simple bridge or trussed form is the 
well-known A-shaped arch. 




2^^. 235, 



CoMMOK Trusses. — One form is shown in Fig. 
235, with a vertical king post. In Fig. 236 there 
are two vertical supporting members, called queen 
posts, used in longer structures. Both of these 

130 



BRIDGES, TRUSSED WORK 131 

forms are equally well adapted for small bridges 
or for roof supports. 

The Vertical Upright Truss. — This form of 
truss naturally develops into a type of wooden 
bridge known all over the country, as its framing 
is simple, and calculations as to its capacity to 
sustain loads may readily be made. Figs. 237, 
238 and 239 illustrate these forms. 




Jrtg,^36, 




2^lp.£37, 



The Warreit Girder. — Out of this simple truss 
grew the Warren girder, a type of bridge partic- 
ularly adapted for iron and steel construction. 

This is the simplest form for metal bridge 
truss, or girder. It is now also largely used in 
steel buildings and for other work requiring 
strength with small weight. 

The Bowstring Girder. — Only one other form of 



132 



CAEPENTRY FOR BOYS 








e;' 



^ 



BEIDGES, TEUSSED WOEK 133 

bridge truss need be mentioned here, and that is 
the bowstring shown in Fig. 240. 

In this type the bow receives the entire compres- 
sion thrust, and the chords act merely as suspend- 
ing members. 

Fundamental Truss Form. — In every form of 
truss, whether for building or for bridge work, the 
principles of the famous A-truss must be em- 
ployed in some form or other ; and the boy who is 
experimentally inclined will readily evolve means 
to determine what degree of strength the upper 
and the lower, members must have for a given 
length of truss to sustain a specified weight. 

There are rules for all these problems, some of 
them very intricate, but all of them intensely in- 
teresting. It will be a valuable addition to your 
knowledge to give this subject earnest study. 



CHAPTEE XIII 

THE BEST WOODS FOR THE BEGi:NrNER 

li^ this place consideration will be given to some 
of the features relating to the materials to be em- 
ployed, particularly with reference to the manner 
in which they can be worked to the best advantage, 
rather than to their uses. 

The Best Woods. — The prime wood, and the 
one with which most boys are familiar, is white 
pine. It has an even texture throughout, is gen- 
erally straight grained, and is soft and easily 
worked. White pine is a wood requiring a very 
sharp tool. It is, therefore, the best material for 
the beginner, as it will at the outset teach him the 
important lesson of keeping the tools in a good, 
sharp condition. 

Soft Woods. — It is also well for the novice to do 
his initial work with a soft wood, because in join- 
ing the parts together inaccuracies may be easily 
corrected. If, for instance, in mortising and ten- 
oning, the edge of the mortised member is not true, 
or, rather, is not "square," the shoulder of the 
tenon on one side will abut before the other side 
does, and thus leave a crack, if the wood is hard. 
If the wood is soft there is always enough yield to 

134 



BEST WOODS FOE BEGINNERS 135 

enable the workman to spring it together. There- 
fore, until you have learned how to make a true 
joint, use soft wood. 

Poplar is another good wood for the beginner, as 
well as redwood, a western product. 

Hard Woods. — Of the hard woods, cherry is the 
most desirable for the carpenter's tool. For work- 
ing purposes it has all the advantages of a soft 
wood, and none of its disadvantages. It is not apt 
to warp, like poplar or birch, and its shrinking 
unit is less than that of any other wood, excepting 
redwood. There is practically no shrinkage in red- 
wood. 

The Most Difficult Woods. — Ash is by far the 
most difficult wood to work. While not as hard as 
oak, it has the disadvantage that the entire board 
is seamed with growth ribs which are extremely 
hard, while the intervening layers between these 
ribs are soft, and have open pores, so that, for 
instance, in making a mortise, the chisel is liable 
to follow the hard ribs, if the grain runs at an 
angle to the course of the mortise. 

The Hard-ribbed Grain in" Wood. — This peculi- 
arity of the grain in ash makes it a beautiful wood 
when finished. Of the light-colored woods, oak 
only excels it, because in this latter wood each 
year's growth shows a wider band, and the inter- 
stices between the ribs have stronger contrasting 



136 CARPENTEY FOE BOYS 

colors than ash; so that in filling the surface, be- 
fore finishing it, the grain of the wood is brought 
out with most effective clearness and with a beau- 
tifully blended contrast. 

The Easiest Working Woods. — The same thing 
may be said, relatively, concerning cherry and 
walnut. While cherry has a beautiful finishing 
surface, the blending contrasts of colors are not so 
effective as in walnut. 

Oregon pine is extremely hard to work, owing to 
the same difficulties experienced in handling ash; 
but the finished Oregon pine surface makes it a 
most desirable material for certain articles of fur- 
niture. 

Do not attempt to employ this nor ash until you 
have mastered the trade. Confine yourself to pine, 
poplar, cherry and walnut. These woods are all 
easily obtainable everywhere, and from them you 
can make a most creditable variety of useful arti- 
cles. 

Sugar and maple are two hard woods which may 
be added to the list. Sugar, particularly, is a' 
good-w^orking wood, but maple is more difficult* 
Spruce, on the other hand, is the strongest and 
toughest wood, considering its weight, which is 
but a little more than that of pine. 

Differences in the Working of Woods. — Dif- 
ferent woods are not worked with equal facility by 



BEST WOODS FOR BEGINNEES 137 

all the tools. Oak is an easy wood to handle with 
a saw, but is, probably, aside from ash, the most 
difficult wood known to plane. 

Ash is hard for the saw or the plane. On the 
other hand, there is no wood so easy to manipulate 
with the saw or plane as cherry. Pine is easily 
worked with a plane, but difficult to saw; not on 
account of hardness, but because it is so soft that 
the saw is liable to tear it. 

FoECii^G Saws in Wood. — One of the reasons 
why the forcing of saws is such a bad practice will 
be observed in cutting white or yellow pine. For 
cross-cutting, the saw should have fine teeth, not 
heavily set, and evenly filed. To do a good job 
of cross-cutting, the saw must be held at a greater 
angle, or should lay down flatter than in ripping, 
as by so doing the lower side of the board will not 
break away as much as if the saw should be held 
more nearly vertical. 

These general observations are made in the hope 
that they will serve as a guide to enable you to 
select your lumber with some degree of intelli- 
gence before you commence work. 



11 



CHAPTER XIV 

WOOD TURNING 

Advantages of Wood Turning. — This is not, 
strictly, in the carpenter's domain; but a knowl- 
edge of its use will be of great service in the 
trade, and particularly in cabinet making. I urge 
the ingenious youth to rig up a wood-turning lathe, 
for the reason that it is a tool easily made and 
one which may be readily turned by foot, if other 
power is not available. 

Simple Turning Lathe. — A very simple turn- 
ing lathe may be made by following these instrac- 
tions : 

The Kails. — Procure two straight 2"x 4" scant- 
ling (A), four feet long, and planed on all sides. 
Bore four f-inch holes at each end, as shown, and 
10 inches from one end four more holes. A plan 
of these holes is shown in B, where the exact spac- 
ing is indicated. Then prepare two pieces 2" x 4" 
scantling (C), planed, 42 inches long, one end of 
each being chamfered off, as at 2, and provided 
with four bolt holes. Ten inches down, and on the 
same side, with the chamfer (2) is a cross gain (3), 
the same angle as the chamfer. Midway between 
the cross gain (3) and the lower end of the leg is 

138 



WOOD TUENING 



139 



a gain (4) in the edge, at right angles to the cross 
gain (3). 

The Legs. — Now prepare two legs (D) for the 
tail end of the frame, each 32 inches long, with a 
chamfer (5) at one end, and provided with four 
bolt holes. At the lower end bore a bolt hole for 
the cross base piece. This piece (E) is 4" x 4", 21 



n 



• • » ^ 



3 



// 




<jS 






'••J 


|:: 




~7^ 


1 


^ 


3 


C 








J) 



■*ii^^=^ 



©'"IB 1^ 



!) 



,2rV^./6V/ :r'?am€2)eiail6 . 



3 



iS^ 



^ 



inches long, and has a bolt hole at each end and 
one near the middle. The next piece (F) is 2" x 4", 
14| inches long, provided with a rebate (6) at 
each end, to fit the cross gains (4) of the legs (C). 
Near the middle is a journal block (7). 

Centering Blocks.— Next provide a 4" x 4" 
piece (G), 40 inches long, through which bore a 
f-inch hole (8), 2 inches from the upper end, and 



140 CAEPENTEY FOR BOYS 

four bolt holes at right angles to the shaft hole (8). 
Then, with a saw split down this bearing, as shown 
at 9, to a point 4 inches from the end. Ten inches 
below the upper end prepare two cross gains (10), 
each an inch deep and four inches wide. In these 
gains are placed the top rails (A), so the bolt 
holes in the gains (10) will coincide with the bolt 
holes (11) in the piece A. Below the gains (10) 
this post has a journal block (12), intended to be 
in line with the journal block (7) of the piece F. 



,f5 /^ ^ 







Then make a block (H) 2"x4", and 6 inches 
long. This also must have a shaft hole (B), and a 
saw kerf (14), similar to the arangement on the 
upper end of the post (G) ; also bore four bolt 
holes, as shown. This block rests between the 
upper ends of the lugs (C). 

Another block (I), 2"x4", and 6 feet long, 
with four bolt holes, will be required for the tail 
end of the frame, to keep the rails (A) two inches 
apart at that end. 

The Tail Stock. — This part of the structure is 
made of the following described material : 



WOOD TUENING 141 

Procure a scantling (J), planed, 4" x 4", 24 
inches long, the upper end of which is to be pro- 
vided with four bolt holes, and a centering hole 
(15). At the lower end of the piece is a slot (16) 
8 inches long and IJ inches wide, and there are 
also two bolt holes bored transversely through the 
piece to receive bolts for reinforcing the end. 

A pair of cheekpieces (K), 2"x4", and each 
12 inches long, are mitered at the ends, and each 
has four bolt holes by means of which the ends 
may be bolted to the upright (J). 

Then a step wedge (L) is made of If" x 2" ma- 
terial, 10 inches long. This has at least four steps 
(17), each step being 2 inches long. A wedge If 
inches thick, 10 inches long, and tapering from 2 
inches to If inches, completes the tail-stock. 

The Tool Eest. — This is the most difficult part 
of the whole lathe, as it must be rigid, and so con- 
structed that it has a revolvable motion as well as 
being capable of a movement to and from the ma- 
terial in the lathe. 

Select a good 4" x4" scantling (M), 14 inches 
long, as shown in Pig. 243. Two inches from one 
end cut a cross gain (I), 1| inches deep and 1 inch 
wide, and round off the upper edge, as at 2. 

Then prepare a piece (N), 1 inch thick, 8 inches 
wide, and 10 inches long. Eound off the upper 
edge to form a nose, and midway between its ends 



142 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



cut a cross gain 4 inclies wide and IJ inches deep. 
The lower margin may be cut away, at an angle 
on each side of the gain. All that is necessary 
now is to make a block (0), 8 inches long, rounded 
on one edge, and a wedge (P). 







A£ 



=] 



T"ip.S43. TbolHei^ir . 




A leather belt or strap (Q), \\ inches wide,^ 
formed into a loop, as shown in the perspective 
view (E), serves as a means for holding the rest 
rigidly when the wedge is driven in. 

Materials. — Then procure the following bolts: 



4 f " bolts, 10" long. 
8 f " " 6" " 

20 I" " 5" " 

5 I" " 9" " 



The Mandrel. — A piece of steel tubing (S), No. 
10 gage, f inch in diameter, 11^ inches long, will 
be required for the mandrel. Get a blacksmith, if 
a machine shop is not convenient, to put a fixed 
center (1) in one end, and a removable centering 
member (2) in the other end. 



WOOD TUENING 



143 



On this mandrel place a collar (3), held by a set 
screw, and alongside of it a pair of pulleys, each 
1^ inches wide, one of them, being, say, 2 inches in 
diameter, and the other 3 inches. This mandrel is 
held in position by means of the posts of the frame 
which carry the split journal bearings. This form 
of bearing will make a durable lathe, free from 



■-^Odk^A'^Mm. 




:r'tff£KMw2M^^ 



chattering, as the bolts can be used for tightening 
the mandrel whenever they wear. 

The center point (1) is designed to rest against 
a metal plate (4) bolted to the wooden post, as 
shown in the large drawing. 

Fly-wheel. — ^It now remains only to provide a 
fly-wheel and treadle with the communicating belt. 
The fly-wheel may be of any convenient size, or it 
may be some discarded pulley or wheel. Suppose 
it is two feet in diameter ; then, as your small pulley 
is 2 inches in diameter, each revolution of the 
large wheel makes twelve revolutions in the man- 
drel, and you can readily turn the wheel eighty 



144 CAEPENTRY FOR BOYS 

times a minute. In that case your mandrel will 
revolve 960 revolutions per minute, which is ample 
speed for your purposes. 

The wheel should be mounted on a piece of |- 
inch steel tubing, one end having a crank 3 inches 
long. This crank is connected up by a pitman rod, 
with the triangularly shaped treadle frame. 

Such a lathe is easily made, as it requires but 
little metal or machine work, and it is here de- 
scribed because it will be a pleasure for a boy to 
make such a useful tool. What he needs is the 
proper plan and the right dimensions to carry out 
the work, and his own ingenuity will make the 
modifications suitable to his purpose. 

The illustration (Fig. 245) shows such a lathe 
assembled ready for work. 

The Tools Required. — A few simple tools will 
complete an outfit capable of doing a great variety 
of work. The illustration (Fig. 246) shows five 
chisels, of which all other chisels are modifications. 

A and B are both oblique firmer chisels, A be- 
ing ground with a bevel on one side only, and B 
with a bevel on each side. 

C is a broad gage, with a hollow blade, and a 
curved cutting edge, ground with a taper on the 
rounded side only. 

D is a narrow gage similarly ground, and E is a 
V-shaped gage. 



WOOD TUENING 



145 




146 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 




:F^iS.Z4e, 



JET 



It may be observed that in wood turning sharp 
tools are absolutely necessary, hence a good oil 
stone, or several small, round and V-shaped stones 
should be used. 



CHAPTER XV 

ON THE USE OF STAINS 

As this subject properly belongs to the painter 
and decorator, it is not necessary to go into details 
concerning the methods nsed to finish off your 
work. As you may not be able to afford the lux- 
ury of having your productions painted or stained, 
enough information will be given to enable you, if 
the character of the wood justifies it, to do the 
work yourself to a limited extent. 

Soft Wood. — As, presumably, most of your first 
work will be done with pine, poplar, or other light- 
colored material, and, as many people prefer the 
furniture to be dark in color, you should be pre- 
pared to accommodate them. 

Use of Stains. — Our subject has nothing to do 
with the technique of staining, but has reference, 
solely, to the use of stains. I recommend, therefore, 
that, since all kinds of stains are now kept in stock, 
and for sale everywhere, you would better rely 
upon the manufactured goods rather than to en- 
deavor to mix up the paints yourself. 

Stains as Imitations. — It will be well to re- 
member one thing as to stains. Never attempt 
to stain anything unless that stain is intended to 

147 



148 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

produce an imitation of some real wood. There 
are stains made np which, when applied, do not 
imitate any known wood. This is bad taste and 
should be avoided. Again you should know that 
the same stain tint will not produce like effects 
on the different light-colored woods. Try the 
cherry stain on pieces of pine, poplar, and birch, 
and you will readily see that while pine gives a 
brilliant red, comparatively speaking, pine or birch 
will be much darker, and the effect on poplar will 
be that of a muddy color. In fact, poplar does 
not stain cherry to good advantage ; and for birch 
the ordinary stain should have a small addition 
of vermilion. 

By making trials of your stains before apply- 
ing them to the furniture, you will readily see the 
value of this suggestion. 

Good Taste ik Stainiistg. — Oak^ mahogany, 
cherry, black walnut, and like imitations are al- 
ways good in an artistic sense, but imitations of 
unfamiliar woods mean nothing to the average 
person. The too common mistake is to try to imi- 
tate oak by staining pine or poplar or birch. It 
may, with good effect, be stained to imitate cherry. 

Oregon pine, or some light-colored wood, with 
a strong contrasting grain may be used for stain- 
ing in imitation of oak. 

Great Contrasts Bad. — ^Violent contrasts in fur- 



ON THE USE OF STAINS 149 

niture staining have the effect of cheapness, unless 
the contrasting outlines are artistically distributed 
throughout the article, from base to top finish. 

Staining Conteasting Woods. — Then, again, do 
not stain a piece of furniture so that one part rep; 
resents a cheap, soft wood, and the other part 
a dark or costly wood. Imagine, for instance, a 
cabinet with the stiles, rails and muUions of ma- 
hogany, and the panels of pine or poplar, or the 
reverse, and you can understand how incongruous 
would be the result produced. 

On the other hand, it would not be a very artis- 
tic job to make the panels of cherry and the mul- 
lions and stiles of mahogany, because the two 
woods do not harmonize, although frequently 
wrongly combined. 

Hard Wood Imitations. — ^It would be better to 
use, for instance, ash or oak for one portion of the 
work, and a dark wood, like cherry or walnut, for 
the other part ; but usually a cherry cabinet should 
be made of cherry throughout ; while a curly maple 
chiffonier could not be improved by having the legs 
of some other material. 

These considerations should determine for you 
whether or not you can safely use stains to repre- 
sent different woods in the same article. 

Natural Effects. — If effects are wanted, the 
skilled workman will properly rely upon the natu- 



150 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

ral grain of the wood; hence, in staining, you 
should try to imitate nature, because in staining 
you will depend for contrast on the natural grain 
of the wood to help you out in producing pleasing 
effects. 

Natural Wood Stains. — ^It should be said, in 
general, however, that a stain is, at best, a poor 
makeshift. There is nothing so pleasing as the 
natural wood. It always has an appearance of 
cleanliness and openness. To stain the wood 
shows an attempt to cover up cheapness by a cheap 
contrivance. The exception to this rule is ma- 
hogany, which is generally enriched by the appli- 
cation of a ruby tint which serves principally to 
emphasize the beautiful markings of the wood. 

Polishing Stained Surfaces. — ^If , on the other 
hand, you wish to go to the labor of polishing the 
furniture to a high degree, staining becomes an 
art, and will add to the beauty and durability of 
any soft or cheap wood, excepting poplar. 

When the article is highly polished, so a good, 
smooth surface is provided, staining does not 
cheapen, but, on the other hand, serves to embel- 
lish the article. 

As a rule, therefore, it is well to inculcate this 
lesson : Do not stain unless you polish ; otherwise, 
it is far better to preserve the natural color of the 
wood. One of the most beautiful sideboards I ever 



ON THE USE OF STAINS 151 

saw was made of Oregon pine, and tlie natural 
wood, well filled and highly polished. That finish 
gave it an effect which enhanced its value to a 
price which equaled any cherry or mahogany prod- 
uct. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE CARPENTER AND THE ARCHITECT 

A CARPENTER has a trade ; the architect a profes- 
sion. It is not to be assumed that one vocation is 
more honorable than the other. A profession is 
defined as a calling, or occupation, "if not mechan- 
ical, agricultural, or the like," to which one devotes 
himself and his energies. A trade is defined as 
an occupation "which a person has learned and en- 
gages in, especially mechanical employment, as 
distinguished from the liberal arts," or the learned 
professions. 

Opportunity is the great boon in life. To the 
ambitious young man the carpenter's trade offers 
a field for venturing into the learned professions 
by a route which cannot be equaled in any other 
pursuit. In his work he daily enters into contact 
with problems whicli require mathematics of the 
highest order, geometry, the methods of calculat- 
ing strains and stresses, as well as laying out 
angles and curves. 

This is a trade wherein he must keep in mind 
many calculations as to materials, number, size, 
and methods of joining; he must remember all the 

152 



CAEPENTER AND THE AECHITECT 153 

small details which go to make up the entire 
structure. This exercise necessitates a mental pic- 
ture of the finished product. His imagination is 
thus directed to concrete objects. As the mind 
develops, it becomes creative in its character, and 
the foundation is laid for a higher sphere of use- 
fulness in what is called the professional field. 

A good carpenter naturally develops into an 
architect, and the best architect is he who knows 
the trade. It is a profession which requires not 
only the artistic taste, but a technical knowledge of 
details, of how practically to carry out the work, 
how to superintend construction, and what the 
different methods arc for doing things. 

The architect must have a scientific education, 
which gives him a knowledge of the strength of 
materials, and of structural forms ; of the durabil- 
ity of materials ; of the price, quality, and use of 
everything which goes into a structure; of labor 
conditions; and of the laws pertaining to build- 
ings. 

Many of these questions will naturally present 
themselves to the carpenter. They are in the 
sphere of his employment, but it depends upon 
himself to make the proper use of the material 
thus daily brought to him. 

It is with a view to instil that desire and ambi- 
tion in every young man, to make the brain do 

12 



154 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

what the hand has heretofore done, that I suggest 
this course. The learned profession is yours if 
you deserve it, and you can deserve it only through 
study, application, and perseverance. 

Do well that which you attempt to do. DonH do 
it in that manner because some one has done it in 
that way before you. If, in the trade, the experi- 
ence of ages has taught the craftsman that some 
particular way of doing things is correct, there 
is no law to prevent you from combating that 
method. Your way may be better. But you must 
remember that in every plan for doing a thing 
there is some particular reason, or reasons, why it 
is carried out in that way. Study and learn to 
apply those reasons. 

So in your leisure or in your active moments, if 
you wish to advance, you must be alert. Know for 
yourself the reasons for things^ and you will there- 
by form the stepping stones that will lead you up- 
ward and contribute to your success. 



CHAPTEE XVII 

USEFUL AETICLES TO MAKE 

As stated in the Introductory, the purpose of 
this book is to show how to do the things, and not 
to draw a picture in order to write a description 
of it. Merely in the line of suggestion, we give 
in this chapter views and brief descriptions of 
useful household articles, all of which may be 




T^Jf. 



made by the boy who has carefully studied the pre- 
ceding pages. 

This figure shows a common bench wholly made 
of material 1 inch thick, the top being 12 inches 
wide and 4 feet long. The legs are 14 inches high 
and 13 inches wide ; and the side supporting rails 

155 



156 



CARPENTEY FOE BOYS 



are 3 inches wide. These proportions may, of 
course, be varied. You will note that the sides of 




J^ig.^^a: 




1^ :?^.^^a^^ 



the top or seat have an overhang of \ inch on 
each margin. 

This is a common, square-top stool, the seat be- 
ing 12" X 12", and the legs 14 inches high. Two of 
the pieces forming the legs are 10 inches wide 
and the other two 8 inches wide, so that when the 



USEFUL AETICLES TO MAKE 157 

wide pieces are nailed to the edges of the narrow 
pieces the leg body will be 10" x 10" and thus give 
the seat an overhang of 1 inch around the margins. 
A most useful article is shown in Fig. 249. It 
is a blacking-box with a lid, a folding shoe rest 




T^tgZ^O. 



and three compartments. The detached figure 
shows a vertical cross-section of the body of the 
box, and illustrates how the shoe rest is hinged 
to the sides of the box. The box itself is 14" x 16" 
in dimensions ; the sides are 6 inches wide and the 
legs 5 inches in height. In order to give strength 
to the legs, the bottom has its corners cut out, to 



158 



CAEPENTRY FOR BOYS 



permit the upper ends of the legs to rest in the 
recesses thus formed. 




jTvg 



This is a convenient form of easel, made of 
four uprights. The main front uprights are of 
strips I" X 1|", and the rear uprights are of \" x 1" 
material. A thin broomstick will serve as the 
pivot bar for the upper end. The rest is made 
of two strips, each |" x 1", nailed together to form 
an L, and nails or wooden pins will serve to hold 
the rest in any desired position. The front up- 
rights should be at least 5 feet long. 

A simple hanging book-rack is illustrated in 



USEFUL AETICLES TO MAKE 159 

Fig. 251. The two vertical strips are each 4 inches 
wide, 1 inch thick and 4 feet long. Four shelves 
are provided, each f inch thick, 9 inches wide and 
4 feet long. Each shelf is secured to the uprights 
by hinges on the upper side, so as to permit it 




7^^52 



to be swung upwardly, or folded ; and below each 
hinge is a triangular block or bracket, fixed to 
the shelf, to support it in a horizontal position. 
A sad-iron holder, or bookcase, shown in Fig, 
252, is another simple form of structure. It may 
be sufficiently large to serve as a standing case 
by having the uprights at the ends serve as legs, 
or the uprights may have holes at their upper 



160 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



ends, by means of which it can be suspended on a 
wall. As shown, it is 30 inches long from bottom 
to top, and 20 inches wide. The shelves are 8 
inches wide. All the material is, preferably, f -inch 
stock. 




i^.^5a 



Fig. 253 shows a wood-box, or it may readily be 
adapted for coal. For wood it should be 2 feet 
long, 1 foot 8 inches wide and 1 foot 10 inches high. 
It will, of course, be made of such dimensions as to 
suit the wood to be stored in it, and both the flat- 
top as well as the sloping portion of the top 
should be hinged, so that the entire top can be 
opened for filling purposes. 

A pair of parallel bars is shown in Fig. 254. 
The dimensions of this will vary, and be dependent 
on the size of the boy intending to use it ; but a 
size best adapted is to make the posts 3 feet high, 



USEFUL AETICLES TO MAKE 161 

and the distance between the bars 16 inches. This 
gives ample room for the exercises required. The 
length between the posts along the bars should be 




Tf^ig.^di. 




jrig.£55. 



at least 5 feet. The entire structure can be made 
of soft wood, except the bars, which should be 
of hard, rigid wood. The posts can be made of 
2" X 2" material, and the braces 2" x 1". The base 



162 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



pieces, both longitudinal and transverse, should 
also be of 2" x 2" material. 




T^ig,^56. 




Fig. 255 represents a mission type of writing 
desk for a boy's use. All the posts, braces and 
horizontal bars are of 2"x2" material, secured 
to each other by mortises and tenons. The legs 



USEFUL ARTICLES TO MAKE 163 

are 27 inches high up to the table top, and the 
narrow shelf is 12 inches above the top. The 
most convenient size for the top is 26" x 48". The 




iriff,^6Q. 



top boards may be 1 inch thick and the shelf the 
same thickness, or even f inch. It is well braced 
and light, and its beauty will depend largely on 
the material of which it is made. 

The screen (Fig. 256) represents simply the 



164 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



framework, showing how simple the structure is. 
The bars are all of 1^" x IJ" material, secured 
together by mortises and tenons. 

Fig. 257 represents a mission chair to match 




^-^fe 



jr^i^.M59. 



the desk (Fig. 255), and should be made of the 
same material. The posts are all of 2" x 2" mate- 
rial. The seat of the chair should be 16 inches, 
and the rear posts should extend up above the 
seat at least 18 inches. 
Fig. 258 is a good example of a grandfather's 



USEFUL AETICLES TO MAKE 165 




JE^ig.Sea 




Wim=- 



T^vg.^ei 



clock in mission style. The framework only is 
shown. The frame is 12" x 12", and 5 feet high, 
and made np of 2"x2" material. Wlien neatly 
framed together, it is a most attractive article of 



166 CAEPENTRY FOE BOYS 

furniture. The top may be covered in any suit- 
able way, showing a roof effect. The opening 
for the dial face of the clock should be at one of 
the gable ends. 

A more pretentious bookcase is shown in Fig. 
259, in which the frame is made up wholly of 
2" X 2" material. The cross-end bars serve as 




ledges to support the shelves. This may be lined 
interiorly and backed with suitable casing mate- 
rial, such as Lincrusta Walton, or fiber-board, and 
the front provided with doors. Our only object 
is to show the framework for your guidance, and 
merely to make suggestions as to structural forms. 
Another most serviceable article is a case for 
a coal scuttle (Fig. 260). This should be made of 
1-inch boards, and the size of the door, which 
carries the scuttle shelf, should be 12" x 16" in 
size. From this you can readily measure the di- 



USEFUL AETICLES TO MAKE 167 

mensions of the case itself, the exterior dimensions 
of which are 15" x 20", so that when the 1-inch 
top is placed on, it will be 21 inches high. The 
case from front to rear is 12 inches, and the 
shelf above the top is 11 inches wide, and elevated 
10 inches above the top of the case. This is a 
most useful box for culinary articles, if not needed 




jTi^^ea. 



for coal, because the ledge, used for the coal scut- 
tle, can be used to place utensils on, and when 
the door is opened all the utensils are exposed to 
view, and are, therefore, much more accessible 
than if stored away in the case itself. 

A mission armchair. Fig. 261 is more elaborate 
than the chair shown in Fig. 257, but it is the 
same in general character, and is also made of 
2" x 2" stock. The seat is elevated 16 inches from 
the floor, and the rear posts are 28 inches high. 



168 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

The arms are 8 inches above the seat. A chair 
of this character should have ample seat space, so 
the seat is 18" x 18''. 

The dog house (Fig. 262), made in imitation of a 
dwelling, is 24 inches square, and 18 inches high 




jTi^.^ei. 




T^tg.Z6d. 



to the eaves of the roof. The opening in front 
is 8" X 10", exclusive of the shaped portion of the 
opening. 

Fig. 263 shows a simple and easily constructed 
settee with an under shelf. The seat is 16 inches 
from the floor and 24 inches wide. The back ex- 
tends up 24 inches from the seat. The lower 
shelf is midway between the floor and seat, and 



USEFUL ARTICLES TO MAKE 169 

is 19 inches wide. This may or may not be up- 
holstered, dependent on the character of the mate- 
rial of which it is made. If upholstered, the 
boards may be of second-class material, prefer- 
ably of pine or other light, soft wood. 

A towel rack (Fig. 264) is always a needed arti- 
cle in the kitchen. The roller may be an old cur- 
tain roller cut down to 18 inches in length. The 
top piece is 2^ inches wide and 21 inches long. 
The vertical bars are each 1^ inches wide and 9 
inches long. The brackets are IJ inches wide 
and made of |-inch material. 

Fig. 265 represents the framework of a sofa, 
the seat of which is 16 inches high, the front 
posts up to the arm-rests 24 inches, and the rear 
posts 38 inches. From front to rear the seat is 
18 inches. The posts are of 3" x3" material. This 
makes a very rigid article of furniture, if mor- 
tised and tenoned and properly glued. The seat 
is 6 feet long, but it may be lengthened or short- 
ened to suit the position in which it is to be placed. 
It is a companion piece to the chair (Fig. 261). 



13 



CHAPTEE XVIII 

SPECIAL TOOLS A:^D THEIR USES 

Iisr the foregoing chapters we have referred the 
reader to the simple tools, but it is thought desir- 
able to add to the information thus given, an out- 
line of numerous special tools which have been 
devised and are now on the market. 

Bit and Level Adjuster. — It is frequently nee- 





ro^^^^ J^/ 




\ Ml^_ -fs^^Sm .','"" Aj-»* 




JSV^^^^^^^\ 'f^' "-^' 










—.,.— c..-"^.-^.,.— ^ 


/ ■' / •'' / / ' / '■ •' / J M: iv' 


'1\ \\ v^ 


' futt ■**"'»*'* 


^ :rV;K]\ 


^Ty '?'* 


'.M ■»...»•• •^^•.i 


'!^JjiD.d-J-&-Lii^/I/jjA/^ 



Fig, 266, Bit and Square level, 

essary to bore holes at certain angles. This can 
be done by using a bevel square, and holding it 
so one limb will show the boring angle. But this 
is difficult to do in many cases. 

This tool has three pairs of V slots on its back 
edges. The shank of the bit will lie in these slots, 
as shown in Fig. 266, either vertically, or at an 
angle of 45 degrees, and boring can be done with 
the utmost accuracy. It may be attached to a 
Carpenter's square, thus making it an accurate 
plumb or level. 

170 



SPECIAL TOOLS AND THEIE USES 171 

Miter Boxes.— The advantages of metal miter 
boxes is apparent, when accurate work is required. 

The illustration, Fig. 267, shows a metal tool 
of this kind, in which the entire frame is in one 
solid casting. The saw guide uprights are 




Fig. 267. Metal Miter Box. 



clamped in tapered sockets in the swivel arm and 
can be adjusted to hold the saw without play, and 
this will also counteract a saw that runs out of 
true, due to improper setting or filing. 

A second socket in the swivel arm permits the 
use of a short saw or allows a much longer stroke 
with a standard or regular saw. 

The swivel arm is provided with a tapering in- 
dex pin which engages in holes placed on the under 



172 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



side of the base. The edge of the base is gradu- 
ated in degrees, as plainly shown, and the swivel 
arm can be set and automatically fastened at any 
degree desired. 




Fig. 268. Parts of Metal Miter Box. 

The uprights, front and back are graduated in 
sixteenths of inches, and movable stops can be set, 
by means of thumb-screw to the depth of the cut 
desired. 

Figure 268 shows the parts of the miter box, 
in which the numbers designate the various parts : 
101 is the frame ; 102 the frame board ; 104 frame 



SPECIAL TOOLS AND THEIE USES 173 

leg ; 106 guide stock ; 107 stock guide clamp ; 109 
stock guide plate ; 110 swivel arm ; 111 swivel arm 
bushing; 112 swivel bushing screw; 113 index 
clamping lever; 115 index clamping lever catch.; 
116 index clamping lever spring; 122 swivel com- 
plete ; 123 T-base ; 124 J uprights ; 126 saw guide 




Fig. 269, Angle Dividers. 

cap; 127 saw guide cap plate; 132 saw guide tie 
bar ; 133 left saw guide stop and screw ; 134 right 
side guide stop and screw; 135 saw guide stop 
spring; 136 saw guide cylinder; 137 saw guide cyl- 
inder plate; 138 trip lever (back) ; 139 trip lever 
(front); 141 leveling screw; 142 trip clamp and 
screw; 146 T-base clamp screw. 

Angle Dividers. — This is another tool, which 
does not cost much and is of great service to the 



174 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



carpenter in fitting moldings where they are ap- 
plied at odd angles. 

To lay out the cut with an ordinary bevel neces- 
sitates the nse of dividers and a second handling 
of the bevel, making three operations. 

The '^Odd Job" Tool. — A most nseful special 
tool, which combines in its make-up a level, plumb 







^m. 






*•■«••*«««■**<> 



I 



Fig. 270. ''Odd Job'' Tool 



try-square, miter-square, bevel, scratch awl, depth 
gage, marking gage, miter gage, beam compass, 
and a one-foot rule. To the boy who wishes to 
economize in the purchase of tools this is an article 
which should be obtained. 

Figure 270 shows the simplicity of the tool, and 
how it is applied in use. 

Bit Braces. — These tools are now made with so 



SPECIAL TOOLS AND THEIR USES 175 

many improved features that there is really no 
excuse for getting poor tools. 

The illustrations show merely the heads and 
the lower operating parts of the tools. Fig. 271 
shows a metal-clad ball-bearing head, so called, 
as its under side is completely encased in metal 
securely screwed to the wood and revolving 
against the ball thrust bearing. 

D represents a concealed ratchet in which the 
cam ring governs the ratchet, and, being in line 
with the bit, makes it more convenient in handling 
than when it is at right angles. The ratchet parts 
are entirely enclosed, thus keeping out moisture 
and dirt, retaining lubrication and protecting the 
users' hands. 

The ratchet mechanism is interchangeable, and 
may be taken apart by removing one screw. The 
two-piece clutch, which is drop forged, is backed 
by a very strong spring, insuring a secure lock. 
When locked, ten teeth are in engagement, while 
five are employed while working at a ratchet. It 
has universal jaws (G) for both wood and metal 
workers. 

In Fig. 272, B represents a regular ball bearing 
head, with the wood screw on the large spindle and 
three small screws to prevent its working loose. 
This also has a ball thrust. E is the ratchet box, 
and this shows the gear teeth cut on the extra 



176 



CAEPENTRY FOR BOYS 



heavy spindle, and encased, so that the user's 
hands are protected from the teeth. 

The interlocking jaws (H), which are best for 
taper shanks, hold np to No. 2 Clark's expansion. 



Fig. 271 



^^1 ^^ ^^ W^ 




Fig. 272 Fig. 273 

Types of Bit Braces. 



and are therefore particularly adapted for car- 
penter's use. 

In Fig. 273 the plain bearing head (C) has no 
ball thrust. The head is screwed on the spindle and 



SPECIAL TOOLS AND THEIB USES 177 

held from tnrning off by two small screws. The 
open ratchet (F) shows the gear pinned to the 
spindle and exposed. This has alligator jaws (J), 
and will hold all ordinary size taper shank bits, 




Fig. 27 Jf, Fig, 275 Fig. 276 

Steel Frame Breast Drills. 



also small and medium round shank bits or drills. 
Steel Frame Breast Drill. — These drills are 
made with both single and double speed, each speed 
having three varieties of jaws. The single speed 
is very high, the ratio being 4| to 1, which makes 



178 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

it desirable to use for small drills, or for use in 
wood. 

A level is firmly set in the frames of these tools 
to assist the user to maintain a horizontal position 
in boring. Each of the forms shown has a ball 
thrust bearing between the pinion and frame. The 
breast plate may be adjusted to suit and is locked 
by a set screw. The spindle is kept from turning 
while changing drills, by means of the latch 
mounted on the frame, and readily engaging with 
the pinion. The crank is pierced in three places 
so that the handle can be set for three different 
sweeps, depending on the character of the work. 

Figure 274 has a three jaw chuck, and has only 
single speed. Figure 275 has an interlocking jaw, 
and is provided with double speed gearing. Fig- 
ure 276 has a universal jaw, and double speed. 

Planes. — The most serviceable planes are made 
in iron, and it might be well to show a few of the 
most important, to bring out the manner employed 
to make the adjustments of the bits. 

In order to familiarize the boy with the differ- 
ent terms used in a plane, examine Figure 277. 
The parts are designated as follows: lA is the 
double plane iron ; 1 single plane iron ; 2 plane iron 
cap ; 3 cap screw ; 4 lever cap ; 5 lever cap screw ; 
6 frog complete ; 7 Y adjusting lever ; 8 adjusting 
nut; 9 lateral adjusting lever; 11 plane handle; 



SPECIAL TOOLS AND THEIR USES 179 

12 plane knob; 13 handle bolt and nut; 14 knob 
bolt and nut ; 15 plane handle screw ; 16 plane bot- 
tom ; 44 frog pin ; 45 frog clamping screw ; 46 frog 
adjusting screw. 

Eabbeting, Matching and Dado Planes. — Fig- 
ure 278 shows a useful form of plane for the rea- 




Fig. 277. Details of Metal Plane. 



son that it is designed to receive a variety of irons, 
adapted to cut rabbets. 

The detached sections of Fig. 278 show the 
various parts, as well as the bits which belong to it. 
1, 1 represent the single plane irons ; 4 the lever 
cap; 16 the plane bottom, 50 the fence; 51 the 
fence thumb screw; 61 the short arm; 70 the ad- 



180 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

jnstable depth gage ; 71 the depth gage which goes 
through the screw ; and 85 the spurs with screws. 
MoLDiisTG AND Beading Plane. — A plane of the 
character shown in Fig. 279 will do an immense 
variety of work in molding, beading and dado 
work, and is equally well adapted for rabbeting, 
for filletsters and for match planing. The regu- 
lar equipment with this tool comprises fifty-two 
cutters. 




Fig. 278. Rabbet, Matching and Dado Plane. 



As shown in Fig. 279, the plane has a main stock 
(A), which carries the cutter adjustment, a handle, 
a depth gage, a slitting gage, and a steel bottom 
forming a bearing for the other end of the cutter^ 
and slides on arms secured to the main stock. 

This bottom can be raised or lowered, so that, 
in addition to allowing the use of cutters of differ- 



SPECIAL TOOLS AND THEIE USES 181 

ent widths, cutters can be used having one edge 
higher or lower than the edge supported in the 
main stock. 



Fig. 279, Molding and Beading Plane. 



The auxiliary center bottom (C), which can be 
adjusted for width or depth, fulfils the require- 
ment of preventing the plane from tilting and 
gouging the work. The fence D has a lateral ad- 
justment by means of a screw, for extra fine work. 



182 



CAEPENTRY FOE BOYS 



The four small cuts in the corners show how the 
bottoms should be set for different forms of cut- 
ters, and the great importance of having the 
fences adjusted so that the cutters will not run. 
The samples of work illustrated show some of 



^tWSHH***-" 




.i,\^,kmi^\mhM, 



Fig. 280. Dovetail Tongue and Groove Plane. 



the moldings which can be turned out with the 
plane. 

Dovetail Tongue akd Groove Plane. — This is 
a very novel tool, and has many features to recom- 
mend it. Figure 280 shows its form, and how it 
is used. It is designed to make the dovetailed 
tongue as well as the groove. 

It will cut any size groove and tongues to fit 
with sides of twenty degrees flare, where the width 



SPECIAL TOOLS AND THEIE USES 183 

of the neck is more than one-qnarter of an inch 
thick, and the depth of the groove not more than 
three-qnarters of an inch. The tongue and groove 
are cnt separately, and can be made with parallel 
or tapering sides. The operation of the plane is 
very simple. 



?^^:D. 





Fig. 281. Fig. 282, 

Router Planes, 



EouTER Planes. — This is a type of plane used 
for surfacing the bottom of grooves or other de- 
pressions parallel with the general surface of the 
work. 

The planes are made in two types, one, like Fig. 
281,* which has a closed throat, and the other. Fig. 
282, with an open throat. Both are serviceable, 
but the latter is preferable. These planes will 



184 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



level off bottoms of depression, very accurately, 
and the tool is not an expensive one. 

DooE Trim Plane. — This is a tool for making 
mortises for bntts, face plates, strike plates, 
escntcheons, and the like, np to a depth of 5/16, 
and a width of 3 inches. The principal feature in 
the plane is the method of mounting the cutter, 
which can be instantly set to work from either end 
of the plane or across it. 






i IB 

w w w 





Fig. 283. Door Trim Plane. 



The cutter, as shown in Fig. 283, is cushioned 
by a spring which prevents taking a heavier chip 
than can be easily carried. A fence regulates the 
position of the cut and insures the sides of the cut 
being parallel. The depth of the cut is governed 
by a positive stop. By removing the fence and 
locking the cutter post with the thumb screw, in- 
stead of using the spring, a very superior router 
plane is obtained. 



CHAPTER XIX 

ROOFING TRUSSES 

The chapter on Bridge Building gives some 
suggestions as to form of trusses, the particular 
types there shown being principally for wide 
spans. Such trusses were made for one purpose 
only, namely, to take great weight, and they were, 
as a consequence, so constructed as to provide 
strength. 

But a roofing truss, while designed to hold the 
accumulated materials, such as snow and ice, likely 
to be deposited there, is of such a design, princi- 
pally, so as to afford means of ornamentation. 
This remark has reference to such types as dis- 
pense with the cross, or tie beam, which is the dis- 
tinguishing feature in bridge building. 

The tie beam is also an important element in 
many types of trusses, where ornamentation is not 
required, or in such structures as have the roofed 
portion of the buildings enclosed by ceiling walls, 
or where the space between the roofs is used 
for storage purposes. 

In England, and on the Continent of Europe, 
are thousands of trusses structured to support the 
roofs, which are marvels of beauty. Some of them 

14 185 



186 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

are bewildering in their formation. The moldings, 
beaded surfaces, and the carved outlines of the 
soffits, of the arches, and of the purlins, are won- 
derful in detail. 

The wooden roof of Westminster Hall, while 
very simple in structure, as compared with many 
others, looks like an intricate maze of beams, 
struts and braces, but it is, nevertheless, so har- 
monized that the effect is most pleasing to the 
eye, and its very appearance gives the impression 
of grandeur and strength. 

Nearly all of the forms shown herein have come 
down to us from mediaeval times, when more 
stress was laid on wooden structures than at the 
present time, but most of the stone and metal build- 
ings grew out of the wooden prototypes. 

Now the prime object of nearly all the double- 
roofed trusses was to utilize the space between the 
rafters so as to give height and majesty to the 
interior. 

A large dome is grand, owing to its great sim- 
plicity, but the same plain outlines, or lack of orna- 
mentation, in the ceiling of a square or rectangular 
building would be painful to view, hence, the 
braces, beams, plates, and various supports of the 
roofed truss served as ornamental parts, and it 
is in this particular that the art of the designer 
finds his inspiration. 



EOOFING TEUSSES 



187 



Before proceeding to apply the matter of orna- 
mentation, it might be well to develop these roof 
forms, starting with the old type Barn Eoof , where 
the space between the rafters must be utilized for 
the storage of hay. 




jFYg.^di. GamdraRooe 



The Gambrel Roof, Fig. 284, requires a tie beam, 
(A), as shown, but the space above the beam is 
free of all obstructions, and gives a large storage 
space. The roof has two sets of rafters (B, C), 
and of different pitch, the lower rafters (B) hav- 
ing a pitch of about 30 degrees, and the upper ones 
(C), about 45 degrees. 



188 



CAEPENTEY FOR BOYS 



A tie bar (D) joins the middle portion of each 
of the rafters (B, C) and another tie bar (E) joins 
the middle part of the rafter (B), and the support- 
ing post (F). The cross tie beam (G) completes 
the span, and a little study will show the complete 
interdependence of one piece upon the other. 




2^ ^66, Purlin Hoor. 



The Purlin Roof is a type of structure used very 
largely throughout the United States, for wide 
bams. (A) is the cross beam; (B, B) the purlin 
posts ; (C, C) the purlin plates ; (D, D) the rafters ; 
and (E, E) the supporting braces. 

The rafters (D) are in two sections, the distance 
from the eaves to the comb being too great for 
single length rafters, and the purlin plates are not 
designed to make what is called a "self-support- 
ing" roof, but merely to serve as supports for the 
regular rafters. 



EOOFING TEUSSES 



189 



The Princess Truss, on the other hand, is de- 
signed to act as a support for the different lengths 
of rafters (A, B, C), and as a means for holding 
the roof. It is adapted for low pitch and wide 
spans. 

The main truss is made up of the cross beam 
(D), rafters (E, E) and thrust beam (F). Purlin 




jr%g.^86. Trimeti^Tru^ 



posts (G, G) are placed at an angle intermediate 
the ends of the rafters, and the purlin plates 
(H, H) support the roof rafters (A, B, C) ; I, I 
are the vertical tie rods. 

This type is probably the oldest form of truss 
for building purposes, and it has been modified in 
many ways, the most usual modification being the 
substitution of posts for the tie rods (I, I). 

Following out the foregoing forms, we may 



190 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

call attention to one more type which permitted 
ornamentation to a considerable degree, although 
it still required the tie beam. In fact the tie beam 
itself was the feature on which the architect de- 
pended to make the greatest effect by elaborat- 
ing it. 

This is shown in Fig. 287, and is called the 
Arched, or Cambered, Tie Beam Truss. It is a 




7^ig.S87. c3rcliecL,orCamd€r€a,7leBea?fL 



very old type, samples of which have been found 
which take it back to a very remote age. 

The tie beam A, in wide spans, was made in 
two sections, properly tied together, and sometimes 
the outer ends were very wide, and to add to the 
effect of the arch, it might also be raised in the 
middle, something in the form shown by the dotted 
line (B). 

The Mansard is what may be called a double- 
mounted roof, and it will be seen how it was 



EOOFING TEUSSES^ 191 

evolved from the preceding types. It will be 
noted that the simple truss formed by the mem- 
bers (A, B, C) is merely superposed on the lean- 
ing posts, the tie beam also being necessary in this 
construction. 




/^. JS68. jTTie ??ian^arcL 



But the most elaborate formations are those 
which were intended to provide trusses for build- 
ings wherein the tie beams were dispensed with. 

The simplest form known is called the Scissors 
Beam, illustrated in Fig. 289. This has been util- 
ized for small spaces, and steep pitches. Each 
rafter (A) has an angled beam or brace (B), 
springing from its base, to the opposite rafter (A), 



192 



CAEPENTRY FOE BOYS 



to which it is joined, midway between its ends, as 
at C. 

Where the two braces (B) cross each other they 
are secured together, as at D. As a result, 




2^tg.£d9. ^cu^onBcam, 



three trusses are formed, namely, 1, 2, 3, and it 
possesses remarkable strength. 

Beaced Collab Beam. — This is a modification 
of the last type, but is adapted for thick walls 
only. The tie rod braces (A, A) have to be brought 
down low to give a good bracing action, and this 



EOOFING TRUSSES 



193 



arrangement is capable of considerable ornamen- 
tation. 

The steeper the pitch the higher up wonld be the 
inner and lower brace posts (B, B) which were 




J!^,S90.S7aced Collar Beam. 




supported by the top of the wall. This form is 
not available for wide spans, and is shown to il- 
lustrate how the development was made into the 
succeeding types. 

The Eib and Collar Truss, Fig. 291, is the first 



194 



CARPENTRY FOR BOYS 



important structural arrangement which permitted 
the architect to give full sway to embellishment. 
The inwardly-projecting members (A, A) are 
called Hammer Beams, They were devised as a 




jFYg.SBl Rib and Collar Trut<>. 



substitute for the thick walls used in the Braced 
Collar Beam Truss, and small brackets (B, B) 
were placed beneath as supports. 

The short tie beam (C), near the apex, serves as 
the member to receive the thrust and stress of the 
curved ribs (D, D). It forms a most graceful type 



KOOFING TRUSSES 



195 




Fig. 291^. Hammer Beam Trms. 



of roof, and is capable of the most exquisite orna- 
mentation, but it is used for the high pitched roofs 
only. 

The acme of all constructions, in which strength, 
beauty, and capacity for ornamentation are 
blended, is the Hammer Beam Truss. Here the 
hammer beam projects inwardly farther than in 
the preceding figure, and has a deeper bracket (B), 
and this also extends down the pendant post (C) a 
greater distance. 



196 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

The curved supporting arch (D), on each side, 
is not ribbed, as in the Eib and Collar Truss, but 
instead, is provided with openwork (not shown 
herein), together with headings and moldings, and 
other ornamental characteristics, and some of the 
most beautiful architectural forms in existence 
are in this type of roof. 

What are called Flying Buttresses (E) are some- 
times used in connection with the Hammer Beam 
Truss, which, with heavy roofs and wide spans, 
is found to be absolutely necessary. 



CHAPTEE XX 

ON THE COlSrSTKUCTION OF JOINTS 

In uniting two or more elements, some particu- 
lar type of joint is necessary. In framing tim- 
bers, in making braces, in roof construction and 
supports, in floor beams, and in numerous other 
places, where strength is required, the workman 
should have at his command a knowledge of the 
most serviceable methods. 

Illustrations can most forcibly convey the dif- 
ferent types ; but the sizes must be determined by 




J^tg,^9£. Bridle croin^a^ 



the character of the material you are working with. 
Our aim is to give the idea involved, and the 
name by which each is known. 

Eeference has been made in Chapter X, to cer- 
tain forms of scarfing and lapping pieces. This 
chapter has to do with a variety of other structural 

197 



198 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



forms, but principally with such as are used in 
heavy building work, and in cases where neither 
fish plates nor scarfing will answer the purpose. 

Bkidle Joints. — This is a form of joint where 
permanency is not desired, and where it is neces- 




JT'i^g. ^9d 4purTenopt. 





J^i/a,^9^, ^acldle Jbtnt^ 



sary to readily seat or unseat the vertical timber. 
It is also obvious that the socket for the upright is 
of such a character that it will not weaken it to 
any great extent. 

Spur Tenon. — This tenon can be used in many 
places where the regular one is not available. 
This, like the preceding, is used where the parts 



CONSTEUCTION OF JOINTS 



199 



are desired to be detachable, and the second form 
is one which is used in many structures. 

Saddle Joint. — This is still another manner in 
which a quickly detachable joint can be con- 
structed. The saddle may be mounted on the main 
base, or cut into the base piece. An infinite va- 




JTi^g 296. </b^^Le cToirtt:^' 




riety of forms of saddles are made, most of them 
being used in dock work, and for framing of that 
character where large timbers are used, as in the 
building of coal chutes, and the like. 

Joggle Joint. — This joint is used almost ex- 
clusively for brace work where great weight must 
be supported. The brace has a tenon, and the end 



200 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



must also be so arranged tliat it will have a direct 
bearing against the upright, which it braces and 
supports, or it may have two faces, as in the second 
figure, which is an exceedingly strong construction. 
Feaming Joints. — These are the simplest form 
in which two members are secured together. They 




jP^^ ^97, /jLeei droi?tt6. 



7^^. S98. ^^Ir Temn. 

are used almost wholly in rafter work, and have 
very few modifications. The depth of the cut, for 
the toe of the rafter, depends on the load to be 
carried, and also on the distance the end of the 
rafter is from the end of the horizontal member on 
which the rafter rests. 



CONSTEUCTION OF JOINTS 201 

Heel Joints. — This is by far the most secure of 
the framing type of joints. This, if properly 
made, is much better than the construction shown 
in the previous illustration, but the difficulty is 
to make the rafter fit into the recesses properly. 
This is no excuse for failure to use, but it is on 
account of inability to make close fits that is 
accountable for lack of use. It will be seen that 
in case one of the heels rests against the recess, 





J!fYg.S99. Tu6kTenoK 



and the others do not, and the pressure is great, 
there is a liability to tear out the entire joint. 

Stub Tenoit. — This is another form of tenon 
which is made and designed to be used where it is 
in close proximity to another tenon, or where the 
mortises, if made full size, will weaken the member. 
The long tusk can be shortened, to suit the place 
where it projects, and the stub tenon on each side 
of the tusk may be made very short, and one side 
longer than the other if necessary. 

15 



202 



CARPENTEY FOR BOYS 



Tusk Tenon. — Two forms of tusk construction 
are given. Any number of forms have been de- 
vised, all for special purposes, and designed for 
different kinds of woods. These shown are par- 
ticularly adapted for soft woods, and the prin- 
cipal feature that is valuable lies in the fact that 
they have a number of shoulders within the mor- 
tise, each of which, necessarily adds to the 




JT^^dOa Doud^lemsk rencni. 



strength. It should be observed that in the con- 
struction of the tusk tenon, the greatest care must 
be taken to have it fit the mortise tightly, and this 
has reference to the bottom and shoulder ends as 
well. 

Double Tusk Tenons. — The distinguishing dif- 
ference between this and the preceding is in the 
tusk, which in this form of construction goes 
through the upright member, and is held by a cross 
key. The double tusk is intended for hard woods, 



CONSTEUCTION OF JOINTS 



203 



and it is regarded as the finest, as well as the 
strongest, joint known. 

Cogged Joints. — This differs from the regular 
tenoning and mortising methods, principally be- 






n TL 



JTvg.SOt Cbffjped </dln^^. 




-Z\^. S0&. JlncTior Joint: 



cause the groove or recess is in the form of an 
open gain. It is used where the member is to be 
inserted after the main structure is put together. 
Anchor Joint. — This form of connection is de- 
signed for verj^ large timbers, and where great 
care must be taken in making the parts fit together 
nicely, as everything depends on this. This style 



204 CAEPENTRY FOR BOYS 

is never used where the angles are less than 45 
degrees, and the depth of the gain in the timber 
receiving the brace is dependent on the thrust of 
the brace. 




JFli^, 303. DeeptMTichor tToint 

The Deep Anchor Joint is an extension of the 
tongue of the Anchor tenon, so that it affords a 
greater support for the end thrust. To clearly dis- 
tinguish between this and the preceding form, it 
might be said that the Anchor Joint is one de- 
signed to protect the member containing the gains, 
while the Deep Anchor Joint favors the brace, by 
giving it a greater power. 



CHAPTEE XXI 

SOME MISTAKES, AND A LITTLE ADVICE IK CAEPENTBY 

In the mechanical arts, workers are as likely 
to learn from the mistakes committed as through 
correct information imparted. Advice, therefore, 
might be considered superfluous. But there are 
certain things which are easily remembered and 
may be borne in mind while engaged in turning out 
any work. 

This chapter is not given for the purpose of call- 
ing attention to all the errors which are so com- 
mon, but merely to point out a few which the boy 
will commit as he tries to carry out his work for 
the first time. 

One of the difficult things for any one to learn, 
in working with wood, is to plane the edge of a 
board straight and square at the same time. This 
is made doubly difficult if it is desired to plane 
it strictly to dimensions. 

Usually before the edge is straight it is down to 
the proper width desired, and it is then too late 
to correct any error, because further work will 
make it too narrow. 

The whole difficultv is in the holding of the 
plane. It matters not how rigidly it is held, and 

205 



206 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

how carefully it is guarded to veer it toward one 
side or the other, it will be found a most difficult 
task. 

If the fore, or finishing, plane is used, and 
which is the proper tool for the purpose, the im- 
pression seems to be, that to square up the edge 
and make it cut off a thicker shaving on one side 
than on the other, requires that the plane should 
be pressed down with force, so as to make it dig 
in and cut a thicker shaving. 

When this is resorted to the board is liable to 
get out of true from end to end. A much better 
plan is to put the plane on the edge of the board 
true and straight. If it is too high on the edge 
nearest you, bring the plane over so the inside 
edge is flush with the inside edge of the board. 

Then use the fingers of the left hand as a gage 
to keep the plane from running over. 

Now, the weight of the plane in such a condition 
is sufficient to take off a thicker shaving at the 
high edge, and this will be done without any effort, 
and will enable you to concentrate your thoughts 
on keeping the plane straight with the board. 

The weight of the plane will make a thicker 
shaving on one side than on the other, and correct 
inequalities, provided you do not attempt to force 
the plane. 

It requires an exceedingly steady hand to hold 



CONSTEUCTION OF JOINTS 207 

a plane firmly for squaring up a half-incli board. 
Singular as it may seem, it is almost as difficult a 
job with a two-inch plank. In the case of the thin 
board the plane will move laterally, unless the ut- 
most care is exercised ; in the truing up the thick 
plank the constant tendency is to move the plane 
along the surface at a slight diagonal, and this is 
sure to cause trouble. 

It only emphasizes the fact most clearly, that to 
do a good job the plane must be firmly held, that 
it must move along the board with the utmost pre- 
cision, and that it should not be forced into the 
wood. 

In smoothing down a board with the short 
smoothing plane, preparatory to sandpapering it, 
the better plan is to move the plane slightly across 
the grain. This will enable the bit to take hold 
better, and when the sandpaper is applied the 
course of the movement should be across the grain 
opposite the direction taken by the smoothing 
plane. 

It is never satisfactory to draw the sandpaper 
directly along in the course of the grain. Such a 
habit will cause the sandpaper to fill up very 
rapidly, particularly with certain woods. 

When gluing together joints or tenons, always 
wipe off the surplus glue with warm water taken 
from the glue pot. If you do not follow this ad- 



208 CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 

vice the glue will gum up the tools and the sand- 
paper used to finish the work. 

Never try to work from opposite sides of a piece 
of material. Have a work side and a work edge, 
and make all measurements therefrom. Mark 
each piece as you go along. Take a note mentally 
just how each piece is to be placed, and what must 
be done with it. 

The carpenter, above all others, must be able to 
carry a mental picture of his product. 

Never saw out the scribing or marking line, 
either in cutting or in ripping. The lines should 
be obliterated by the plane, when it is being fin- 
ished, and not before. 

Make it a habit to finish ofiF the surfaces and 
edges true and smooth before the ends are cut, or 
the mortises or tenons are made. This is one of 
the most frequent mistakes. No job can be a per- 
fect one unless your material has been worked 
down to proper dimensions. 

Learn to saw across a board squarely. Thisi 
may be a hard thing for the novice to do. A long; 
easy stroke of the saw will prevent it from run- 
ning, unless too badly set or filed, and will also 
enable you to hold it more nearly square with the 
board. 

If you find that you invariably saw "out of 
true," then take some sawing lessons for your own 



\ CONSTRUCTION OF JOINTS 209 

benefit, until you can jndge whether the saw is 
held true or not. 

It is better to saw np a half dozen boards in 
making the test than commit the error while work- 
ing on a job. 



GLOSSARY OF WORDS 



USED IN TEXT OF THIS VOLUME 



Acute. Sharp, to the point. 

Adjuster. A tool which measures distances and relative 

spaces. 

iEsthetic. The theory of taste; science of the beautiful in 

nature and art. 

Abstract. That which exists in the mind only; separate from 

matter; to think of separately as a quality. 

Alligator A term used to designate a pair of serrated bars 

jaws. which are held together in a headpiece, and ca- 

pable of clamping bits between them. 

Analyzed. Separated into its primitive or original parts. 

Anchor. Any device for holding an object in a fixed posi- 

tion. 

Angle A sort of double bevel tool so arranged that an 

dividers. angle can be made at the same time on both sides 

of a base line. 

Angularly Forming an angle with reference to some part or 

disposed. position. 

Archivolt. The architectural member surrounding the curved 

opening of an arch. More commonly the molding 
or other ornaments with which the wall face of 
an arch is changed. 

Artisan. One trained in some mechanic's art or trade. 

Beaded. A piece of wood or iron having rounded creases 

on its surface. 

211 



212 



CAEPENTRY FOE BOYS 



Beam compass. 



Belfry. 
Bevel square. 



Bisected. 
Bit. 

Braced collar. 

Breast drill. 

Bridle joint. 

Bungalow. 

Bushing. 

Butts. 
Callipered. 
Cambered. 
Capital. 



A drawing compass in which the points are arranged 
to slide on a rod, instead of being fixed on divid- 
ers. 

A bell-tower, usually attached to a church. 

A handle to which is pivotally attached a blade, 
which may be swung and held at any desired 
angle. 

To divide, mark, or cut into two portions. 

A small tool, either for drilling, or for cutting, as a 
plane iron. 

A form of roofing truss, in which the upper cross 
member is supported by a pair of angled braces. 

A tool for holding boring tools, and designed to have 
the head held against the breast for forcing in the 
boring tool. 

A form for securing elements together which pro- 
vides a shallow depression in one member, and a 
chamfered member at its end to fit therein. 

A Bengalese term; originally a thatched or tiled 
house or cottage, single story, usually surrounded 
by a veranda. 

A substance of any kind interposed, as, for in- 
stance, a wearing surface between a mandrel and 
its bearing. 

A term applied to certain hinges, usually of the 
large type. 

A measured portion which has its side or thickness 
fixed by a finely graduated instrument. 

Slightly rising in the middle portion. An upward 
bend, or projection. 

A small head or top of a column; the head or upper- 
most member of a pilaster. 



GLOSSARY 



213 



Cardinal. Pre-eminent, chief, main line; Cardinal line is the 

principal line to make calculations or measure- 
ments from. 

Centering- A place for the reception of the point of an instru- 

point. ment, like a compass or a dividers, or for the dead 

center of the tail-stock of a lathe. 

Cheekpiece. A piece or pieces at right angles to another piece, 
either fixed or movable, which serves as a rest or 
a guide. 

Chiffonier. A movable and ornamental closet or piece of furni- 

ture with shelves and drawers. 

Chute. A channel in any material, or made of any sub- 

stance, for conveying liquids or solids. 

Circumference. The distance around an object. 

Circumferen- Surrounding or encircling, 
tially. 

Classical. Relating to the first class or rank, especially in 

literature or art. 

Cogged. Having teeth, either at regular or at irregular in- 

tervals. 

Concrete. Expressing the thing itself specifically; also the qual- 

ity; a specific example. 

Configuration. Form, as depending on the relative disposition of the 
parts of a thing; a shape or a figure. 

Coincide. To occupy the same place in space; to correspond ex- 

actly; to agree; to concur. 

Corelation. A reference, as from one thing to another; the put- 

ting together of various parts. 

Conventional. Something which grows out of or depends upon cus- 
tom, or is sanctioned by general usage. 

Craftsman. One skilled in a craft or trade. 

Curvature. The act of curving or being bent. 



214 



CARPENTEY FOR BOYS 



Concentrated. 
Dado. 

Depth gage. 

Degree. 

Discarded. 
Deterioration. 
Depressed. 
Diagram- 
matical. 

Diametrically. 

Diagonal. 

Dominate. 
Door trim. 
Double-roofed. 

Drop forged. 

Elaboration. 
Elevation. 



Elliptical. 
Embellishment. 



To bring to a common center; to bring together in 
one mass. 

A plain flat surface between a base and a surbase 
molding. Sometimes a painted or encrusted skirt- 
ing on interior walls. 

A tool by means of which the depths of grooves 
and recesses are measured. 

Measure of advancement; quality; extent; a division 
or space. 

Cast ojff; to reject or put away. 

To grow worse; impairing in quality. 

A sunken surface or part. 

A drawing made to illustrate the working or the 
scheme, without showing all the parts or giving 
their relative positions or measurements. 

A direction toward the center or across the middle 
of a figure or thing. 

A direction which is not parallel with or perpen- 
dicular to a line. 

To govern; controlling. 

The hardware which is attached to a door. 

All form of roof structure where there is an inner 
frame to support the rafters. 

Metal forms which are struck up by means of 
heavy hammers, in which are the molds or pat- 
terns of the article to be formed. 

Wrought with labor; finished with great care. 

The act of raising from a lower to a higher degree; 

a projection of a building or other object on a 

plane perpendicular to the horizon. 
Having the form of an ellipse. 
The act of adorning; that which adds beauty or 

elegance. 



GLOSSARY 



215 



Entablature. 

Equidistant. 
Escutcheon. 

Evolve. 
Fagade. 

Facing-boards. 



Factor. 

Fence. 
Fish plate. 

Flare. 
Flush. 

Frog clamping 

screw. 
Fulcrum. 

Fluting. 
Gain. 

Gambrel. 
Geometry. 



The structure which lies horizontally upon the col- 
umns. 

Being at an equal distance from a point. 

An ornamental plate like that part about a key- 
hole. 

To unfold or unroll; to open and expand. 

The front of a, building; the principal front having 
some architectural pretensions. 

The finishing of the face of a wall of different mate- 
rial than the main part of the wall; the wide 
board below the cornice or beneath the windows. 

One of the elements, circumstances or influences 
which contribute to produce a result. 

A term used to designate a metal barrier or guard 
on a part of a tool. 

A pair of plates, usually placed on opposite sides 
of the pieces to be secured together, and held by 
cross bolts. 

A pitch; an angle; an inclination. 

Unbroken, or even in surface; on a level with the 
adjacent surface. 

A screw which is designed to hold or adjust two 
angled pieces. 

That by which a lever is sustained, or on which a 
lever rests in turning or moving a body. 

The channel or channels in a body; as the grooves 
in a colmnn. 

A square or beveled notch or groove cut out of a 
girder, beam, post or other material, at a corner. 

A roof having two different pitches, the upper much 
greater than the lower. 

Pertaining to that branch of mathematics which in- 



216 



CARPENTEY FOR BOYS 



Girder. 



Glossary. 

Graduated. 
Guide stock. 

Hammer 
beam. 



Hammer-pole. 

Hemispherical. 
Horizontal. 

Incorporated. 
Index pin. 



Initial. 

Insulate. 
Interchange- 
able. 
Interval. 

Interest. 



vestigates the relations, properties and measure- 
ments of solids, surfaces, lines and angles. 

A main beam ; a straight horizontal beam to span an 
opening or carry a weight, such as the ends of 
floor beams. 

A collection or explanation of words and passages 
of the works of an author; a partial dictionary. 

Cut up into steps; divided into equal parts. 

A member which is the main portion of the tool, 
and from which all measurements are taken. 

A member in a truss roof structure, at the base 
of the roof proper, which consists of an inwardly 
projecting part, on which the roof rests, and from 
which it is braced. 

The peon, or round end of a hammer which is used 
for driving nails. 

Pertaining to a half globe or sphere. 

On the level; at right angles to a line which points 
to the center of the earth. 

United in one body. 

A small movable member which is designed to limit 
the movement of the operative part of a ma- 
chine. 

To make a beginning with; the first of a series of 
acts or things. 

To place in a detached position; to separate from. 

One for the other. 

A space between things; a void space; between two 
objects. 

To engage the attention of; to awaken or attract at- 
tention. 



GLOSSAEY 



il7 



Interlocking Two or more parts of a piece of mechanism in 
jaw. which the said parts pass each other in their 

motions. 
Intersection. The point or line in which one line or surface cuts 

another. 
Intervening. The portion between. 
Inverted. Turned over; to put upside down. 

Joggle- joint. A form of connection which has struts attached to 

a pendant post. 
Joinery. The art or trade of joining wood. 

Kerf. A notch, channel or slit made in any material by 

cutting or sawing. 
Kit. A working outfit ; a collection of tools or implements. 

I'evel. A tool designed to indicate horizontal or vertical 

surfaces. 
Liberal. Not narrow or contracted. 

Lobe. Any projection, especially of a rounded form; the 

projecting part of a cam-wheel. 

Longitudinal. In the direction of the length; running lengthwise. 
Lubrication. The system of affording oiling means to a machine 

or to any article. 
Mandrel. The live spindle of a lathe; the revolving arbor of 

a circular saw. 
Mansard. A type of roof structure with two pitches, one, the 

lower, being very steep, and the other very flat 

pitch. 
Manual. Of or pertaining to the hand; done or made by 

hand. 
Marginal. The border or edge of an object. 

Marking gage. A bar on which is placed a series of points, usually 

equidistant from each other. 



16 



218 



CAEPENTEY FOE BOYS 



Matching. 

Mediaeval. 
Miter-box. 

Miter-square. 
Ilullion. 



Obliterated. 

Obtuse. 

Orbit. 

Ordinate. 



Ornamentation. 
Oscillate. 
Overhang. 
Panelin!::. 



Parallelogram. 

Parallel. 

Perspective. 



Placing tongue in one member and a corresponding 
groove in another member, so that' they will join 
each other perfectly. 

Of or relating to the Middle Ages. 

A tool for the purpose of holding a saw true at any 
desired adjustable angle. 

A tool Avhich provides adjustment at any desired 
angle. 

A slender bar or pier which forms the vertical divi- 
sion between the lights of windows, screens, etc.; 
also, indoors, the main uprights are stiles, and the 
intermediate uprights are mullions. 

Erased or blotted out. 

Xot pointed; bent. 

The path made by a heavenly body in its travel 
around another body. 

The distance of any point in a curve or a straight 
line, measured on a line called the awis of ordi- 
nates, or on a line parallel to it from another line, 
at right angles thereto, called the axis of ahscissas. 

To embellish; to improve in appearance. 

To swing like a pendulum. 

In a general sense that which projects out. 

A sunken compartment or portion with raised mar- 
gins, molded or otherwise, as indoors, ceilingSj 
wainscoting, etc. 

A right-lined quadrilateral figure, whose opposite 
sides are parallel and, consequently, equal. 

Extended in the same direction, and in all parts 
equally distant. 

A view; a vista; the effect of distance upon the ap- 
pearance of objects, by means of which the eye 
recognizes them as being at a more or less measur- 
able distance. 



GLOSSARY 



219 



Pivot. A fixed pin, or short axis, on the end of which a 

wheel or other body turns. 

Pitch. Slope; descent; declivity, like the slope of a roof. 

Placement. The act of placing; in the state of being placed. 

Predominate. To be superior in number, strength, influence or au- 
thority; controlling. 

Produced. To lengthen out; to extend. 

Prototype. The original; that from which later forms sprang. 

Purlin. A longitudinal piece of timber, under a roof, mid- 

way between the caves and comb, to hold the raft- 
ers. 

Eabbeting. The manner of cutting grooves or recesses. 

Ratchet. A wheel, bar, or other form of member, having teeth 

or recesses. 

Rebate. A rectangular, longitudinal recess or groove, cut in 

the corner or edge of a body. 

Rail. A horizontal piece in a frame or paneling. 

Rectangular. Right-angled; having one or more angles of ninety 
degrees; a four-sided figure having only right 
angles. 

Rib and A form of roof truss in which the collar between 

collar. rafters is used as the thrust bearing for the ribs 

which project up from the hammer beam. 

Router. A tool for cutting grooves or recesses. 

Saddle joint. A form of connection in which one part has a por- 
tion cut away, resembling a saddle, and in which 
the part to be attached has its end cut so as to 
fit the saddle thus formed. 

Scarfing. The cutting away of the ends of timbers to be 

joined, so the two parts on lapping will unite 
evenly. 

Scissors beam. A form of truss, in which there is a pair of interior 
braces formed like shears, and secured to the 
main rafters themselves. 



220 



CARPENTEY FOR BOYS 



Score, Scored. Shear; cut; divide; also notching or marking. 
Scratch awl. A sharp-pointed tool, with a handle. 

Scribe. To cut, indent or mark with a tool, such as a knife, 

awl or compass, so as to form a cutting line for 
the workman. 

Self-support- Held by itself; not depending upon outside aid. 

ing. 
Shank. Usually the handle, or portion to which the handle 

is attached. 

Slitting gage. A tool which is designed to cut along a certain line 
guided by an adjustable fence. 

Sof&t. The under side of an arch. 

Solid. Not hollow; full of matter; having a fixed form; 

hard; opposed to liquid or fluid. 
Spindle. A small mandrel; an arbor; a turning shaft. 

Springer The post or point at which an arch rests upon its 

support, and from which it seems to spring. 

Sphere. A body or space continued under a single surface 

which, in every part, is equally distant from a 
point within called its center. 

Spur. A small part jutting from another. 

Strike plate. A plate serving as a keeper for a beveled latch bolt 
and against which the latter strikes in closing. 

Steel Tubing. Pipes made from steel; tubing is measured across 
from outside to outside; piping is measured on the 
inside. 

Step-wedge. A wedge having one straight edge, and the other 
edge provided with a succession of steps, by means 
of which the piece gradually grows wider. 

Strain, To act upon in any way so as to cause change of 

Stresses. form or volume; as forces on a beam to bend it. 



GLOSSARY 



221 



strut. 
Stub. 

Submerged. 

Swivel. 

Tail-stock. 

Technical. 

Texture. 

Tool rest. 
Torso. 
Transverse. 
Trimmer. 

Truss. 



Tusk. 



Any piece of timber which runs from one timber to 
another, and is used to support a part. 

A projecting part, usually of some defined form, and 
usually designed to enter or engage with a cor- 
responding recess in another member. 

To be buried or covered, as with a fluid; to put 
under. 

A pivoted member, used in many forms of tools, in 
which one part turns on the other. 

The sliding support or block in a lathe, which carries 
the dead spindle, or adjustable center. 

Of or pertaining to the useful in mechanical arts, 
or to any science, business, or the like. 

The disposition of the several parts of any body in 
connection with each other ; or the manner in which 
the parts are united. 

That part of a lathe, or other mechanism, which sup- 
ports a tool, or holds the tool support. 

The human body as distinguished from the head and 
limbs. 

In a crosswise direction; lying across; at right an- 
gles to the longitudinal. 

A beam, into which are framed the ends of headers 
in floor framing, as when a hole is left for stairs, 
chimneys, and the like. 

An assemblage of members of wood or iron, support- 
ed at two points, and arranged to transmit pres- 
sure vertically to those points with the least pos- 
sible strain, across the length of any member. 

In mechanism, a long projecting part, longer than 
a tenon, and usually applied to the long or pro- 
jecting part of a tenon. 



222 



CARPENTRY FOE BOYS 



Universal A joint wherein one member is made to turn with 

joint. another, although the two turning members are 

not in a line with each other. 

Vocation. Employment; trade; profession; business. 

Voissoir. One of the wedgelike stones of which an arch is 

composed. 



THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS 

By ROGER T. FINLAY 

Thrilling adventures by sea and land of two boys and 
an aged Professor who are cast away on an island with 
absolutely nothing but their clothing. By gradual and 
natural stages they succeed in constructing all forms of 
devices used in the mechanical arts and learn the 
scientific theories involved in every walk of life. These 
subjects are all treated in an incidental and natural way 
in the progress of events, from the most fundamental 
standpoint without technicalities, and include every 
department of knowledge. Numerous illustrations 
accompany the text. 

Two Thousand things every boy ought to know. Every page 
a romance. Every line a fact 



Six titles — 60 cents per volume 



THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS 
The Castaways 

THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS 
Exploring the Island 

THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS 
The Mysteries of the Caverns 

THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS 
The Tribesmen 

THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS 
The Capture and Pursuit 

THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS 
The Conquest of the Savages 



PUBLISHED BY 

THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY 

147 Fourth Avenue New York 



The Hickory Ridge Boy Scouts 

A SERIES OF BOOKS FOR BOYS 

Which> in addition to the interesting boy scout stories by CAPTAIN ALAN 

DOUGLAS, Scoutmaster, contain articles on nature lore, native animals 

and a fund of other information pertaining to out-of-door life, 

that will appeal to the boy's love of the open 



I. The Campfires of the Wolf Patrol 

Their first camping experience affords the scouts splendid opportunities to use 
their recently acquired knowledge in a practical way. Elmer Chenoweth, a lad 
from the northwest woods, astonishes everyone by his familiarity with camp 
life. A clean, wholesome story every boy should read. 

II. Woodcraft; or, How a Patrol Leader Made Good 

This tale presents many stirring situations in which some of the boys arc called 
upon to exercise all their ingenuity and unselfishness. A story filled with 
healthful excitement. 

III. Pathfinder; or, The Missing Tenderfoot 

Some mysteries are cleared up in a most unexpected way, greatly to the credit 
of our young friends. A variety of incidents follow fast, one after the other. 

IV. Fast Nine; or, a Challenge From Fairfield 

They show the same team-work here as when in camp. The description of the 
final game with the team of a rival town, and the outcome thereof, form a 
stirring narrative. One of the best baseball stories of recent years. 

V. Great Hike; or, The Pride of The Khaki Troop 

After weeks of preparation the scouts start out on their greatest undertaking. 
Their march takes them far from home, and the good-natured rivalry of the 
different patrols furnishes many interesting and amusing situations. 

VI. Endurance Test; or, How Clear Grit Won the Day 

Few stories **get" us more than illustrations of pluck in the face of apparent 
failure. Our heroes show the stuff they are made of and surprise their most 
ardent admirers. One of the best stories Captain Douglas has written. 

Boy Scout Nature Lore to be Found in The Hickory Ridge 

Boy Scout Series 

Wild Animals of the United States — Tracking — in Number I. 
Trees and Wild Flowers of the United States in Number il. 
Reptiles of the Un'' d States in Number III. 
Fishes of the United States in Number IV. 
Insects of the United States in Number V. 
Bird- of the United States in Number VI. 

Cloth Binding Cover IHuatrationa in Four Colors 40c. Per Volumm 

THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY 

147 FOURTH AVENUE (near 14th St.) NEW YORK 




In Camp on the Big Sunflower. 

The Rivals of the Trail 

The Strange Cabin on Catamount Island. 

Lost in the Great Dismal Swamp. 

With Trapper Jim in the North Woods. 

Caught in a Forest Fire. 

By LAWRENCE J. LESLIE 



A series of wholesome stories for boys told 
in an interesting way and appealing to their 
love of the open. 



Each, l2mo. Cloth, 40 cents per volume 



THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY 

147 FOURTH AVENUE 

NEW YORK 



Christy fflathewson's Book 




A Ripping Good 
Baseball Story 
by One Who 
Knows the Game 



This book has attained a 
larger sale than any baseball 
story ever published. 

The narrative deals with the 
students of a large university 
and their baseball team, the members of which 
have names which enable the reader to recognize them 
as some of the foremost baseball stars of the day before 
their entrance into the major leagues. 

One gains a very clear idea of "inside baseball" 
stripped of wearisome technicalities. The book is pro- 
fusely illustrated throughout and contains also a number 
of plates showing the manner in which Mathewson 
throws his deceptive curves, together with brief descrip- 
tion of each. 



Cloth hound 5M y VVi 



Thrice 60c. per volume 



THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY 
147 FOURTH AVENUE NEW YORK 



ECONOMICAL COOKING 

Primrose Edition 

Planned for Two or More Persons 

By 

MISS WINIFRED S. GIBBS 

Dietitian and Teacher of Cooking of the New York 
Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor 

Printed on Fine Quality Book Paper. Cover Design in Colors 

MANY Cook Books have beeii published, from time 
to time, to meet various requirements, or to eluci- 
date certain theories, but very few have been written to 
meet the needs of the large proportion of our population 
who are acutely affected by the constantly increasing 
cost of food products. Notwithstanding that by its 
valuable suggestions this book helps to reduce the expense 
of supplying the table, the recipes are so planned that 
the economies effected thereby are not offset by any 
lessening in the attractiveness, variety or palatability of 
the dishes. 

Of equal importance are the sections of this work 
which deal with food values, the treatment of infants and 
invalids and the proper service of various dishes. 

The recipes are planned for two persons, but may 
readily be adapted for a larger number. The book is 
replete with illustrations and tables of food compositions 
— the latter taken from the latest Government statistics. 

Cloth Binding Illustrated 40c. per volume, postpaid 

THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY 

147 FOURTH AVENUE (near 14th St.) NEW YORK 



CUT-OUT AND PAINT BOOKS 



SCISSORS BOOK 




An original Kne of art 
studies printed in full rich 
colors on high grade paper. 
This series introduces many 
novel features of interest, and 
as the subject matters have 
been selected with unusual 
care, the books make a strong 

appeal not only to the little ones but even to those of 

riper years. 



Post Cards . • 
Dolls of all Nations 
Our Army . . 
Children's Pets 



Painting Book 
Scissors Book 
Scissors Book 
Puzzle Book 



Size 8]/i X 1014: inches 
Price 15c. per copy 

Send for sample and trade discount 



THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY 
147 FOURTH AVENUE NEW YORK 



Deacidified using the Bookkeeper proce 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: May 2004 

PreservationTechnoloqii 

A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATI 

1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township. PA 16066 
(724)779-2111 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




012 205 327 1 













^v^Fr^f?:^ 









